Author: Irwin Collier

 

The course for undergraduates and graduates “Trade Unionism and Allied Problems” (Economics 6a) was a staple in the Harvard economics department offerings for the two decades that include the first world war, the roaring ‘twenties and the early years of the Great Depression. This post follows up on the previous post that provided lists of readings used in the courses on “trade unions” and “labor problems” from the second half of the 1920s.

I have provided early and late course descriptions to indicate the continuity of course content. These are followed by the annual enrollment data when available along with transcriptions of the final exams for all but three years not found in the collections of printed examinations in the Harvard archives or in the hathitrust.org digital archive. Biographical information about Professor William Z. Ripley who regularly taught Economics 6a was included in an earlier post for this course in 1914-15.

The Fall term 1947 Harvard course outline and reading list for John Dunlop’s course “Trade Unionism and Collective Bargaining” has been transcribed and posted earlier. 

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Early Course Description (1913-14)

[Economics] 6a ¹hf. Trade Unionism and Allied Problems. Half-course (first half-year). Tu., Th., Sat., at 10. Professor RIPLEY, assisted by —.

This course will deal mainly with the economic and social relations of employer and employed. Among the topics included will be: the history of unionism; the policies of trade unions respecting wages, machinery, output, etc.; collective bargaining; strikes; employers’ liability and workmen’s compensation; efficiency management; unemployment, etc., in the relation to unionism, will be considered.

Each student will make at least one report upon a labor union or an important strike, from the original documents. Two lectures a week, with one recitation, will be the usual practice.

Source: Harvard University. Division of History, Government, and Economics, 1913-14. Official Register of Harvard University, Vol. X, No. 1, Part X (May 19, 1913), p. 63.

 

Late Course Description (1932-33)

[Economics] 6a ¹hf. Labor Problems.
Half-course (first half-year). Tu., Th., Sat., at 10. Dr. Brown

This course will deal mainly with the economic and social relations of employer and employed. Among the topics included will be: the history of unionism; the policies of trade unions respecting wages, machinery, output, collective bargaining,  strikes, the legal status of unionism, closed shop, efficiency management, unemployment, and labor legislation.

Source: Harvard University. Division of History, Government, and Economics, 1913-14. Official Register of Harvard University, Vol. XXIX, No. 32 (June 27, 1932), p. 73.

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1912-13

Enrollment, 1912-13

6a ¹hf. (formerly 9a ¹hf) Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. [Lloyd Morgan] Crosgrave. — Trade-Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 72: 3 Graduates, 44 Seniors, 19 Juniors, 4 Sophomores, 2 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1912-13, p. 57.

 

ECONOMICS 6a
Final examination, 1912-13

Answer the first five briefly

1. What is sabotage?
2. What is the “extended” closed shop?
3. What is the principal practical difficulty in the “general strike”?
4. Is it met by the adoption of any positive policy in France by the “syndicates “?
5. In the syndicalist programme what is to be the unit in the reorganized state?
6. Contrast collective bargaining under sanction of the law with its adoption by private arrangement; (a) from the point of view of advantage to the employer; (b) from that of the workman.
7. What are the four main features of the New Zealand legislation. (Each in a sentence.)
8. What is the principal demonstrated weakness in the above legislation?
9. What are three disabilities of the individual workmen in negotiating a wage contract?
10. Wages for women in domestic service and in manufactures seem out of line with one another. What main difference helps to explain this?
11. What is the present condition of affairs respecting the closed shop in the United States? Outline the course of events for two decades.
12. How does the law of conspiracy enter into the decision by courts in labor disputes? How has Great Britain settled it?

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, History of Science, Government, Economics, Philosophy, Psychology, Social Ethics, Education, Fine Arts, Music in Harvard College (June, 1913), p. 45.

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1913-14

Enrollment, 1913-14

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. [Louis August] Rufener. — Trade-Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 71: 4 Graduates, 31 Seniors, 25 Juniors, 6 Sophomores, 5 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1913-14, p. 55

 

ECONOMICS 6a
Final examination, 1913-14

1. Outline the principal phases of development of organized labor in the United States, with especial reference to conditions at the present time. In conclusion name five or six of the most significant events which define the present situation.
2. What are the three most essential features of a collective bargain between workmen and employers?
3. What is the feature in common of all minimum wage laws, as in Victoria and of compulsory arbitration statutes like those of New Zealand? Wherein does the policy differ most profoundly from ours?
4. Name in a sentence in each of as many of the following cases as possible, the essential point at issue.

(a) The Danbury hatters.
(b) Allen v. Flood.
(c) New York Bakeshop law.
(d) Bucks Stove Co. case.
(e) Taff Vale Railway.
(f) Holden v. Hardy. (Utah.)

5. How, other than by incorporation, is a greater measure of legal responsibility of trade unions to be attained?
6. Discuss scientific management from the viewpoint of organized labor.
7. What is the significant feature of the new type of state labor bureau, like the Wisconsin Industrial Commission?
8. Compare the present legal status of the non-union man in England and the United States.

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, History of Science, Government, Economics, Philosophy, Psychology, Social Ethics, Education, Fine Arts, Music in Harvard College (June, 1914), p. 44.

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1914-15 

Enrollment, 1914-15

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. [Louis August] Rufener. — Trade-Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 76: 45 Seniors, 21 Juniors, 4 Sophomores, 6 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1914-15, pp. 59-60.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1914-15

Answer in order; but cover only as many as the time limit permits.

1. Speaking of English conditions, the Webbs on p. 707 say:
   “Hence old-fashioned family concerns with sleepy management and obsolete plant, find the Trade Union regulations a positive protection against competition.” What do they mean? Show how it works out.
2. Describe and discuss the recent decision of the U. S. Supreme Court in the Danbury Hatters case, especially in its bearing upon incorporation.
3. Under any of the plans for eliminating labor contests which expressly prohibit striking, what offset is given to the employees for this limitation upon their freedom of action?
4. The Philadelphia Rapid Transit Co. assures its operatives a fixed percentage of gross receipts as a wage fund. What is the object? Criticize the plan.
5. What advantages may be expected to flow to a union from the adoption of a positive system of high dues and liberal benefits?
6. The Eastern Engineer’s Arbitration Award of 1912 says:
   “Therefore, considering the uncertainty of many of the factors involved, the arbitrators feel that they should not deny an increase of compensation to the engineers merely on the ground that the roads are unable to pay. They feel that the engineers should be granted a fair compensation. … In making their award they therefore eliminate the claim of the railroads that they are unable to pay an increased compensation.” Discuss the principle advanced.
7. Is the closed-shop policy essential to successful trade unionism? Illustrate your argument.
8. Theoretically, the Standard Wage is merely the minimum wage for the trade. How does it work out in practise?
9. How do the efficiency engineers deal with restriction of output? Give imaginary examples, if you can?
10. Where has insurance against unemployment been tried; and with what success?

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, History of Science, Government, Economics, Philosophy, Psychology, Social Ethics, Education, Fine Arts, Music in Harvard College (June, 1915), pp. 49-50.

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1915-16

Enrollment, 1915-16

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. Weisman. — Trade-Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 61: 24 Seniors, 29 Juniors, 1 Sophomore, 7 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1915-16, pp. 60-61.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1915-16

1. Illustrate by a sketch the interrelation between the constituent parts of the American Federation of Labor.
2. Criticise the following premium wage plans for mounting “gem” electric lamp bulbs.

	Wage per thousand
Output under 900 daily	$1.03
Output 900-1000 daily	$1.07
Output 1000-1100 daily	$1.12
Output over 1100 daily	$1.17

3. Have you any impression whether Webb favors craft or industrial unionism? What instances does he cite?
4. Define (a) Federal union; (b) Device of the Common Rule? (c) Jurisdiction dispute.
5. Is there any real difference between an “irritation strike” of the I.W.W. and the British “strike in detail”?
6. Contrast the British and American policies of trade union finance, showing causes and results.
7. Describe the Hart, Schaffner and Marx plan of dealing with its employees.
8. Is the Standard Wage merely the minimum for a given trade or not? Discuss the contention that it penalizes enterprise or ability.
9. Is there any relation logically between the attitude of labor toward piece work and the relative utilization of machinery?
   What is the nature of the business transacted at the annual convention of the American Federation of Labor?

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, History of Science, Government, Economics, Philosophy, Psychology, Social Ethics, Education, Fine Arts, Music in Harvard College (June, 1916), pp. 54-55.

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1916-17

Enrollment, 1916-17

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. Lewis. — Trade-Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 49: 3 Graduates, 20 Seniors, 22 Juniors, 4 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1916-17, pp. 56-57.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1916-17

1. Discuss, with illustrations, the proposition to avoid judicial interference with labor legislation, by means of constitutional amendment.
2. In how far do the Industrial Commissions of several states exemplify the ideals and necessities in the field of labor legislation?
3. “The minimum scale does not reduce all workmen to a ‘deal level’ as it is so often asserted. It is true that it protects the average man when he is employed. But in dull seasons it will invariably be found that the less efficient men are out of work. A lower wage scale for the less efficient would not create more work and furnish them employment. It would, however, pull down the wages of the more efficient, who would still continue to do the work, but at a lower rate of pay.
   “If the unions did not set a minimum scale of wages, the minimum would be set by the necessity of the idle men in the street and standards of living would be lower.” Did the author apparently have piece or time wages in mind in the above quotation, or would the reasoning be applicable equally to either sort?
4. How does the New Zealand program differ from our American practices as respects,
   1. Status of the non-union man?
   2. The standard wage?
   3. Strikes?
5. With what feature of the labor problem does scientific management seek primarily to cope? What obstacles confront its introduction?
6. Give as many reasons as you can for the apparently deep-seated distrust of the courts among the working classes in the United States?
7. Discuss the proposition that equal wages should be paid for the same work regardless of sex.
8. Two slogans are common among the working classes in America; “An injury to one is an injury to all” and “A fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work.” With what important organizations, respectively, would you naturally associate them and why?
9. What are the three crucial features of a collective agreement as to wages and working conditions?
10. As between England and the United States which, on the whole, is the more advanced in the matter of trade union policy and labor legislation? Cite examples.

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Examination Papers 1917 (HUC 7000.28, 59 of 284) Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, History of Religions, …, Economics, …, Fine Arts, Music in Harvard College (June, 1917), pp. 56-57.

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1917-18

Enrollment, 1917-18

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley. — Trade-Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 19: 1 Graduate, 10 Seniors, 8 Juniors.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1917-18, p. 54.

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1917-18

[not included in published volume of exams]

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1918-19

Enrollment, 1918-19

[Course not included in the annual report of President of Harvard College]

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1919-20

Enrollment, 1919-20

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. [Richard Stockton] Meriam. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 97: 30 Seniors, 37 Juniors, 5 Sophomores, 25 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1919-20, p. 90.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1919-20

1. Outline the recent coal strike, noting explicitly the novel points involved in the settlement.
2. The National War Labor Board declared specifically that in the determination of wages for street railway employees it would not admit evidence concerning the financial necessities of the companies.. Was this presumably because they were public utilities or is the principle applicable to all classes of employers?
3. What are the disabilities of the individual laborer in bargaining for wages, according to Webb?
4. How is the closed shop issue treated in the Australian colonies?
5. Discuss labor “as a commodity,” indicating how and why the question was raised?
6. In the discussion of incorporation of trade unions in Commons, two entirely distinct lines of objection are brought out. Outline them.
7. Where have the W.W. been most in evidence? Suggest reasons.
8. Give as many reasons as you can for the wide difference in labor legislation between the several American commonwealths. Number each one and be brief.
9. Discuss the proposition that the standardization of wages is beneficial to the community as well as to the individual worker.
10. Draw up a brief industrial code to govern the relation between employers and workmen as to collective bargaining. State what principles you personally approve.

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Examination Papers 1920 (HUC 7000.28, 62 of 284) Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, History of Religions, …, Economics, …, Fine Arts, Music in Harvard College (June, 1920), p. 51.

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1920-21

Enrollment, 1920-21

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. [Richard Stockton] Meriam. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 94: 2 Graduates, 41 Seniors, 34 Juniors, 1 Sophomore, 16 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1920-21, p. 96.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1920-21

Answer the questions in order. Begin each question on a new page. Answer all questions.

1. a. What are the elements of a collective bargain?
   b. Does collective bargaining adequately describe the aim of trade unionism? Why, or why not?
2. “A living wage is a first charge on industry.” If you were an arbitrator, would you accept this as a basic principle and rule out other considerations as irrelevant? If not, what other facts would you demand, and what use would you make of them?
3. “If the fundamental object of trade unionism…has any justification at all, the principle of the Standard Rate must be conceded, and if a Standard Rate is admitted, the subsidiary regulations which we have described follow as a matter of course.”—(Webb, p. 320.)
   Explain and discuss.
4. Outline the history of British experience respecting rights of trade unionists in the conduct of strikes.
5. Write briefly on five of the following topics:
   1. “Lowering the dyke.”
   2. Priestly v. Fowler.
   3. The Osborne Case.
   4. The Strike in Detail.
   5. The preamble of the I.W.W.
   6. Jurisdictional disputes.
6. What is the legal status of the secondary boycott in the United States? Why is the matter taken so seriously by both parties?
7. What principles as to wages and working conditions have been applied in the New Zealand Compulsory Arbitration Law?
8. Cite instances by name of the two leading types of employers’ organizations, and outline their respective tactics.
9. Describe some of the factors or industrial circumstances which favor or discourage union organization in industry. Illustrate by concrete examples.
10. Why was 1903, or thereabouts, a critical period in the American labor movement?

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Examination Papers 1921 (HUC 7000.28, 63 of 284) Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Church History, …, Economics, …, Fine Arts, Music in Harvard College (June, 1921), pp. 60-61.

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1921-22

Enrollment, 1921-22

[Enrollments not in the annual report of President of Harvard College]

Note: according to Announcement of the Courses of Instruction for 1921-22 (3rd edition) course was listed to be taught by W. Z. Ripley.

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1921-22

1. Show by a sketch the structure of the American Federation of Labor.
2. If the A. F. of L. is a creation of its constituent members, what are the sources of its power over them?
3. The so-called Cleveland plan of collective bargaining in the women’s clothing industry deals with restriction of output by two novel proposals. Describe one or both.
4. Discuss the proposed bills to empower trade unions to sue and to be sued; setting forth their advantages and defects in principle.
5. What is the greatest disadvantage of a minimum wage law under the particular industrial conditions now prevalent? What line of action is proposed for meeting it?
6. What are the two main arguments for a national system of employment agencies in place of the existing practice?
7. Lenin in his Address to the Proletariat (in Commons) announces certain new policies respecting production under the Soviet government. What are they?
8. What is the usual method nowadays of dealing with strikes in the United States? Describe briefly and name alternative plans proposed or adopted.
9. Rowntree’s so-called “price of peace” contains the following five items of an industrial program:
   1. A fair wage.
   2. Reasonable working hours.
   3. Protection against unemployment.
   4. The status of the worker must yield to leadership. We must cultivate in the factory worker the greatest possible maximum of cooperation, self-reliance self-government and enthusiasm, and the lowest practical minimum of discipline and overhead supervision. The democracy and freedom prevailing outside of the factory must not stand out in too great contrast with dictation within the factory. To this end machinery must be adopted for common counsel and mutual understanding relative to conditions under which the worker is employed.
   5. Profit-sharing.
      Criticise this program (a) from the standpoint of production; and (b) as affording satisfaction to the aspirations of the workers.

Final. 1922

 

Source: Harvard University Examinations. Examination Papers 1922 (HUC 7000.28, 64 of 284) Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Church History, …, Economics, …, Social Ethics, Education in Harvard College (June, 1922).

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1922-23

Enrollment, 1922-23

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 89: 3 Graduates, 44 Seniors, 27 Juniors, 6 Sophomores, 2 Freshmen, 7 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1922-23, p. 92.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1922-23

1. What are principal functions of the:
   (a) National Founders’ Association; (b) the National Manufacturers’ Association; (c) National Bottle Manufacturers’ Association; (d) San Francisco Building Trades Council?
2. Who have been the leading proponents of incorporation of trades unions? What are the main objections of the opponents?
3. What did the Clayton Act in its labor clauses seek to do, and with what success? Explain fully.
4. What were the differences between the Coronado Coal Co. case, and that of the Danbury Hatters?
5. What is the gist of the Canadian Industrial Disputes Act of 1907? How does it differ from the British Trades Disputes Act of 1906?
6. What have been some of the results of the plan for settling disputes in the anthracite coal industry?
7. Compare the various types of unemployment insurance.
8. Concerning Workmen’s Compensation in the United States:
   1. What is the best proof of its success?
   2. What has been the attitude, respectively, of employers and workers?
   3. Who pays for it?
   4. What has been its principal indirect, as distinct from its direct effect?
   5. What are some outstanding defects?
9. What renders the Hart, Schaffner and Marx labor policy so distinctive? What great industry stands most flatly opposed to its prime features?
10. What has been the most significant survival in the field of labor relationships of the war period? Show wherein it differs from conditions prevalent commonly in the building trades.

Final. 1923.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers 1923 (HUC 7000.28, 65 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Social Ethics, Anthropology, June, 1923.

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1923-24

Enrollment, 1923-24

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 63: 6 Graduates, 25 Seniors, 22 Juniors, 6 Sophomores, 1 Freshman, 3 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1923-24, pp. 106-07.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1923-24

Develop each question fully, regardless of whether you complete the paper or not.

1. Define, each in a sentence, the following:
   1. preferential shop:
   2. time study;
   3. sabotage;
   4. “ca’canny”;
   5. the truck system;
   6. one big union;
   7. “open shop”;
   8. workmen’s compensation.
2. What has been our experience with Federal child labor regulation?
3. Describe in outline the structure of the American Federation of Labor, indicating, each in a sentence, the prime function of the several units. Show their relation one to another.
4. Criticize the policy proposed by Bullard in the second assigned Atlantic Monthly article dealing with solutions for labor unrest.
5. Trace in outline the development of British legislation dealing with trade unionism. Indicate wherein we have anything resembling it in the United States.
6. How are strikes dealt with in Canada? What success has attended the experiment?
7. Merely name the issue involved in the following Supreme Court decisions:
   1. Coronado Coal Co.
   2. Hitchman Coal Co.
   3. Duplex Printing Press Co.
8. Name as many important events, as you can recall, since the Armistice, which have any bearing upon the matter of industrial relations, again showing in a word what was the significance of each.
9. What do you, personally, think of minimum wage legislation? Not the opinion, whatever it be, but the reasons adduced therfor, are of importance.

Final. 1924.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1924 (HUC 7000.28, 66 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Psychology, Social Ethics, June, 1924.

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1924-25

Enrollment, 1924-25

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 66: 4 Graduates, 37 Seniors, 18 Juniors, 1 Sophomore, 6 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1924-25, pp. 75-76.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1924-25

1. Outline concisely the history of trade unionism in the United States, indicating the predominant type of each period and the factors responsible for its development.
2. Hoxie devotes a good deal of attention to the “fixed group demand” or “lump of labor” doctrine as explaining certain phases of trade union policy. Describe it, and show how it manifests itself in practice; indicating also whether it deserves condemnation, wholly or only in part.
3. In May 1910, Waddell made 31 trips over his division and hauled 38,000 tons. His compensation was $180. In May 1912, he made 26 trips and hauled 46,000 tons, and his pay was $181.
   State the pros and cons of the argument that because the instruments utilized were more productive, assuming that the actual individual effort remained the same, he was entitled to a substantial increase in wages.
4. Is there any difference in principle between profit sharing and the bonus or premium system of wages employed in scientific management?
5. What conditions, other things being equal, favor the use of piece wages; and under what conditions would day or time wages yield better results? [Note. This is purely a “Reasoning” question, not based upon any particular reading.]
6. “The position given in England to trade unions and employers’ associations violates that concept, fundamental in law, that he who is responsible for a wrong must answer therefor.”
   Do you think the above statement is an accurate description of the situation in England at the present time? Could the same remark be applied to conditions as they now exist in the United States? In both cases, state your reasons as fully as possible.
7. Attack or defend, as you please, one or more of the following propositions, stating the case as fully and concisely as possible, and anticipating, where it seems advisable, the arguments which might be urged in opposition to your stand:
   1. A system of compulsory investigation such as the one now in force in Canada should be adopted in the United States.
   2. Trade unions in the United States should be made legally responsible through some form of incorporations.
   3. The closed non-union shop is in the best interests of the consuming public.
   4. Compulsory arbitration, contrary to the workers’ belief, would be to their interests both as union members and as wage-earners.
   5. Restriction of immigration tends to improve the economic position of the American wage-earner.

Final. 1925.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1925 (HUC 7000.28, 67 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Anthropology, Military Science, June, 1925.

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1925-26

Enrollment, 1925-26

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 53: 1 Graduate, 22 Seniors, 21 Juniors, 4 Sophomores, 5 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1925-26, pp. 77-78.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1925-26

1. “The labor of a human being is not a commodity or an article of commerce.” In what law was this phrase employed? Why? Did it probably serve its purpose, as intended?
2. President Wilson in his war message to Congress, April, 1917 said: “We shall fight…for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own governments.” In your opinion is the principle as applicable to industrial as to political affairs? What constitutes the difference, if any?
3. Criticize the theory of the factory owner’s right to a “free flow of labor.” How is it applied under the Constitution?
4. The United States Railroad Labor Board in the Shopmen’s case in 1920 said: “The Board has endeavored to fix such wages as will provide a decent living and will procure for the children of the wage-earners opportunity for education; and yet to remember,…” How do you think they went on with the decision? Complete one as you work it out in your mind.
5. Hart, Schaffner & Marx once proposed to change the system of delivery of paper patterns to cutters, using boys instead of cutters to hunt them up in the files. So the firm petitions the neutral board for a compensatory increase in the number of cuts in a standard day’s performance, because of the relief afforded by employing pattern boys. The cutters object as pattern delivery is cutters’ work. To employ boys will decrease the jobs for the cutters. Company contended it was wasteful to have high-priced men doing boys’ work. As arbitrator how would you reason it out and render decision? Any validity in cutters’ contention?
6. Relate briefly the history of the Clayton law, the “Magna Carta” of labor, exclusive of the point covered in question one.
7. Why have the so-called “Co-union” types of employers’ associations flourished in particular trades in the United States? Analyze the situation in such trades.
8. Sketch under distinct headings, some of the reasons for the antagonism of organized labor to stimulation, as applied in scientific management.
9. What are some of the causes of the distrust and suspicion of organized labor towards the courts in America?

Final. 1926.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1926 (HUC 7000.28, 68 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Social Ethics, Military Science, June, 1926.

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1926-27

Enrollment, 1926-27

6a ¹hf. Professor Ripley. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 63: 1 Graduate, 23 Seniors, 30 Juniors, 3 Sophomores, 6 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1926-27, p. 75.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1926-27

1. Name some positive factors in industrial situations which have directly contributed to the development of unionism in particular trades, explaining why some are well organized and others not so at all.
2. “The American labor movement is strongly in favor of the five day work week wherever it is possible…this policy has a sound economic basis. As their leisure time increases, men and women develop more numerous and more discriminating wants. They buy more of the world’s goods and therefore, purchasing demand is increased.”
   The above argument for the five day week was recently advanced by the President of the A. F. of L. Do you agree that the proposal in question is economically sound, especially with reference to all branches of industry?
3. What is a major factor, purely political, which affects the course of labor legislation in some of the states. Cite a concrete case.
4. Define sabotage. What are some of the other tactics used by the organization which is identified with it?
5. Outline the course of developments affecting growth of the American Federation of Labor in the decade to 1910.
6. Why have co-union agreements with employers’ organizations been so persistent in a certain industry in the United States? Explain fully how things are expected to work out.
7. How would you decide the Statler Hotel case; and why?
8. “Scientific management attempts to substitute in the relations between employers and workers the government of fact and law for the rule of force and opinion. It substitutes exact knowledge for guess work and seeks to establish a code of natural law equally binding upon employers and workmen.”
   From what you know of scientific management in practice, which of the above claims of Mr. Taylor would you call in question and why?
9. Name, if possible, three distinct devices which have been adopted since the World War which have militated against unionism in the United States.

Final. 1927.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1927 (HUC 7000.28, 69 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Social Ethics, Military Science, June, 1927.

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1927-28

 Enrollment, 1927-28

6a ²hf. Professor Charles E. Persons (Boston University), assisted by Mr. Joslyn. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 31: 15 Seniors, 14 Juniors, 1 Sophomore, 1 Other.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1927-28, pp. 74-75.

 

ECONOMICS 6a²
Final examination, 1927-28

GROUP I

Answer one. Forty minutes to one hour

1. When and under what circumstances were the first unions formed? Sketch the development of labor organizations before 1850. What special conditions did they meet in the United States?
2. What, according to the Webbs, are the methods used by trade unions in actual operation? Discuss the Standard Rate and more briefly other trade union policies, stating your own conclusions.
3. What are the special methods of scientific management in dealing with labor? How are wages determined? Are Trade Unionism and Scientific Management necessarily incompatible?
   State the general features of Profit-sharing plans as applied in the United States. Contrast this plan with that applied in Scientific Management plants.
4. Contrast the methods of strike control applied by the United States Railroad Labor Board and The Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act. Were these plans successful in operation? What features of either act do you think worthy of adoption in the United States?

GROUP II

Answer ALL questions; follow the order given

1. Describe the organization of the present union groups in the United States.
2. A western state enacts a law providing:
   1. Children under 18 years of age shall not work more than seven hours a day, nor forty hours a week. These hours must be included between 7 a.m. and 5 p.m.
   2. Females over 18 years of age shall not be employed more than eight hours a day and forty hours a week. These hours must be included between 7 a.m. and 5 p.m.
   3. Males over 18 years of age shall not be employed over eight hours a day nor forty-four hours a week.
      The act is attacked as unconstitutional. State the probable line of attack and defense. What do you think the present supreme court would decide on each of the three articles?
3. To what extent can unemployment be prevented? Which of the methods proposed for the prevention of unemployment seem to you most practical and effective? Outline and justify a program for dealing with such unemployment as is not preventable.
4. In 1923 the receiver of a certain railroad petitioned the Railroad Labor Board for authority to reduce wages below those paid by the railroads generally under rulings by the Board. It was shown that the railroad was not earning enough to cover operating expenses, that the stock and bond holders had received no return for several years, “That the necessity of a discontinuance of operations had been greatly threatened for some time,” and that “such shutdown of the carrier would be disastrous for the 31 counties of Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas through which its lines ran.” The workers decline to accept any reduction in pay and show that their incomes do not suffice to cover the cost of a living wage on a health and comfort standard. As a member of the railroad labor board render decision on this issue.
5. (a) Suppose all workers were persuaded to join unions giving us a complete system of closed shops. What would be the effect on wages, and social conditions generally?
   (b) Suppose the Open Shop drive should be completely successful and trade unionism reduced to local and partial organization. What results would follow?
6. In what respects does a shop committee afford less adequate protection to the workers than does a trade union? What, if any, useful functions may a shop committee perform which are not now performed by trade unions?

Final. 1928.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1928 (HUC 7000.28, 70 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Military Science, Naval Science, June, 1928.

________________________________

1928-29

Enrollment, 1928-29

6a ¹hf. Dr. C. E. Persons. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 50: 1 Graduate, 22 Seniors, 21 Juniors, 3 Sophomores, 3 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1928-29, p. 72.

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1928-29

Group I
Answer one. Forty minutes to one hour.

1. Write brief essays on two of the following subjects:
   1. The origin of trade unionism in Great Britain.
   2. Trade Unionism under the Combination Laws.
   3. The “New Model” and its importance in trade union history.
2. Write a summary history of the development of national trade unions in the United States. This should include the formation and development of the American Federation of Labor.
3. Discuss the method of Collective Bargaining as practiced by the trade unions of Great Britain. Follow the exposition of the Webbs but do not fail to state your own conclusions.
   On what grounds have trade unions based their claims of a “right to a trade”? Discuss the attempts of the unions to settle demarcation disputes and the solution offered by the Webbs for dealing with this problem.
4. (a) State definitely how scientific management proposes to handle questions which concern wage earners. Are these proposals necessarily incompatible with trade unions? What is to be said by way of critical comment of the following quotation: “(Scientific management) substitutes exact knowledge for guess work and seeks to establish a code of natural laws equally binding upon employer and workman.”
   (b) What are the essential features of profit sharing plans? What is, and what should be, the attitude of trade unions toward such proposals? How large is the promise of such plans regarded as aids in solving the labor problem?
5. State, with some precision, the provisions of the Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act. In what respect has the administration of the act departed from the intent of the authors? What is to be said of its success or failure? Its constitutionality? And its standing in the opinions of the wage earners, employers and the general public?
6. State the important features of the law establishing the Railroad Labor Board, and of the act of 1926 which superseded it.
   Briefly summarize the work of the Railroad Labor Board, pointing out its successes and failure. What conclusions do you draw from this experience with governmental control of labor conditions.

Group II
Answer all questions: follow the order given

1. Contrast the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor. Include in your answer a clear statement of: plans of organization; program for the attainment of results; governing philosophy; and effectiveness as agencies to advance the interest of wage earners.
2. A strike was declared against the Mills restaurants in Arizona by the Amalgamated Cooks and Waiters Unions. The strikers maintained pickets who appealed to cooks and waiters not to accept employment or to leave it if employed, and to customers not to patronize the restaurants. The pickets allege that the proprietors are “unfair to organized labor,” that hours are excessive and wages below the living standard. They picket in groups of six and employ vigorous, but generally peaceful, persuasion. There are minor cases of coercion and intimidation. The state has enacted laws declaring picketing legitimate and denying to the state courts the power to issue writs of injunction in labor disputes. The employers enter suits for damages against the union and attack the constitutionality of the law in both state and federal courts.
   Discuss these issues from the standpoint of legality, governmental policy and the legitimate exercise of trade union functions.
3. Discuss the use of writs of injunction in labor disputes. Why has the employment of such writs become increasingly common and why have the trade unions vigorously opposed their use? What issues were involved in the Buck’s Stove case? The Bedford Stone decision?
4. Does the introduction of machinery, e.g., the linotype machine or the automatic glass bottle machine benefit or injure: the wage earner, the capitalist and the consuming public? Answer both as to the immediate and the “long run” effect, and analyze the long run process of adjustment.
5. A certain national building trade’s union established the following rules:
   1. Apprenticeship shall not begin before the age of 16 years and shall be four years long. The ratio of apprentices shall be: “one to each shop irrespective of the number of journeymen employed, and one to every five members thereafter.”
   2. A generally understood standard for a day’s work is in effect, which union members are expected not to exceed. This is based upon the average output of the union members when working without restriction.
   3. The introduction of new machines and processes is not opposed. However, the union insists that its members be given preference on the new machines, and that full union wages be paid. The industry pays to journeymen a straight time wage of 85 cents per hour; runs open shop though the great majority of the workers are union men and has been largely reorganized because of the invention and introduction of labor saving machinery.
      * *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  * * *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *
      Discuss these union practices from the standpoint of industrial efficiency and social welfare. If in your opinion some of them are unsound or unreasonable, what steps would you recommend with a view of having them modified?
6. Discuss the general subject of compulsory arbitration. Has it been successful in operation? Does it eliminate strikes? Strengthen or weaken trade unionism? Mean an increase or decrease in governmental control of industry? To what extent would you think it desirable that such a policy be adopted by our federal and state governments?
7. What conclusion do you draw from your study of trade unionism? Is the movement worthy of support on its past record? Would you suggest modification of its plans or purposes? Do alternative plans such as company unionism seem to you of greater promise?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943 (HUC 7000.55). Box 11: Examination Papers Mid-Years 1929. Papers Printed for Mid-Year Examinations [in] History, New Testament, … , Economics, … , Military Science, Naval Science, January-February, 1929.

________________________________

1929-30

Enrollment, 1929-30

6a ²hf. Mr. Douglas Brown. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 25: 13 Seniors, 11 Juniors, 1 Other.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1929-30, pp. 77-78.

 

ECONOMICS 6a²
Final examination, 1929-30

Answer the first question and any three of the others.

1. (About one hour.) Write upon one of the following topics:
   1. Unemployment as a problem of industry;
   2. Causes of unemployment:
   3. Remedies for unemployment.
2. “Viewing the situation from the point of view of the practical results, the conclusion is reached that the law to-day seriously restricts labor in its collective action, while it does not interfere with the parallel weapons of the employers.” Discuss.
3. “An unmodified closed shop, with the conditions of membership in the control of the union, creates a distinct monopoly of labor, leaving the employer helpless in any wage dispute and enabling the union to enforce its every demand regardless of the competitive conditions of the labor-market for that class of services.” Discuss.
4. “Arbitration in industrial disputes, whether by governments or by private agencies, is ineffectual in the absence of strong organizations on both sides; where such organizations exist, arbitration becomes either a hindrance or a dead letter.”
5. Discuss briefly any two of the following:
   1. Parasitic trades;
   2. Minimum wage legislation;
   3. Knights of Labor;
   4. Jurisdictional disputes.

Final. 1930.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1930 (HUC 7000.28, 72 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, New Testament,…, Economics,…, Military Science, Naval Science, June, 1930.

________________________________

1930-31

Enrollment, 1930-31

6a ¹hf. Mr. D. V. Brown. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 41: 18 Seniors, 17 Juniors, 4 Sophomores, 2 Other.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1930-31, pp. 76-7.

 

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1930-31

1. (Reading Period question. Allow about 45 minutes.)
   Discuss one of the following:”
   1. Influences affecting the development of the American Federation of Labor;
   2. Wage rates and unemployment;
   3. Insurance as a preventive of unemployment.
2. “In so far as the machine displaces skill and reduces the craftsman to the level of the semi-skilled or unskilled, thereby lowering his bargaining power, the effect on wages is bound to be adverse.” Discuss.
3. “Strikes do not benefit the laboring class.” Discuss.
4. “The trade union is an outgrown form of labor organization. With the development of employee-representation plans and profit-sharing, labor finds that it can secure more through cooperation with the employer than through mere aggression.”
5. To what extent would legislation with regard to hours of labor be held constitutional?

Final. 1931.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1931 (HUC 7000.28, 73 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Military Science, Naval Science, January-June, 1931.

________________________________

1931-32

Enrollment, 1931-32

6a ¹hf. Mr. D. V. Brown. — Trade Unionism and Allied Problems.

Total 61: 34 Seniors, 22 Juniors, 3 Sophomores, 2 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College 1931-32, pp. 71-72.

 

ECONOMICS 6a¹
Final examination, 1931-32

Answer the first question and four of the others

1. (Reading period question. Allow about one hour.)
   Discuss one of the following:
   1. The application of the anti-trust laws to labor, and the validity of this application.
   2. “Technological change” and unemployment.
   3. Difficulties of unemployment insurance, with particular reference to British experience.
   4. The economic significance of “fatigue and unrest.”
2. “Several solutions for jurisdictional disputes among trade unions have been attempted.” Discuss.
3. “That the establishment of a minimum wage can increase the rate of pay per unit of work done is clear.” Discuss.
4. “When we consider the American labor movement, we naturally think of craft unionism as dominant. We are too apt to neglect other programs of working-class advance which have been prominent in the past and still offer a challenge.” Discuss these “other programs.”
5. “Employers sometimes detach workers from their unions by organizing their own company unions, which are strictly amenable to their wishes and constitute a supposed substitute for independent labor organizations.” Discuss.
6. Discuss either (a) or (b).
   1. The measurement of unemployment.
   2. The advantages of workmen’s compensation.

Final. 1932.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers, Finals 1932 (HUC 7000.28, 74 of 284). Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions,…, Economics,…, Military Science, Naval Science, January-June, 1932.

Image Source: Cigar box label from the collections of the Museum of the City of New York.