Author: Irwin Collier

Categories
Harvard History of Economics Syllabus

Harvard. Reading list for History of Economics through Ricardo. Probably Ashley, 1899-1900

The Harvard Archives has five folders of undated syllabi/reading lists from the economics department. Every so often as curator of Economics in the Rear-view Mirror I cannot resist the urge to attempt dating artifacts that have been unceremoniously dumped into folders labelled e.g. “Economics, Undated (5 of 5)”. 

The following prescribed reading list can be dated with extremely high probability to the course taught by William James Ashley from the turn of the 20th century (1899-90) for which exams have already been transcribed. I have used square brackets to designate additional bibliographic information.

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Evidence of
(i) Ashley’s course and (ii) 1899-1900

Note the close correspondence of the authors in the prescribed reading list to the course announcement below for the 1897-98 academic year (it was not offered 1898-99 when Ashley was on leave). The course description for 1899-1900 would have been helpful, but I have not located a copy yet.

Economics in the Rear-view Mirror posted a first term reading list in the Harvard Archives for Ashley’s course Economics 11: The Modern Economic History of Europe that has a stamp: “Harvard College Library, Cambridge, Mass. Jan 15, 1900” along with a handwritten note in pencil on the second term’s reading list “1899-1900”. Those semester reading lists bear distinct similarities to the reading list featured in this post, both begin with “Prescribed Reading” and we see that almost all authors of items in the reading list are only identified by last name.

The translation of Turgot’s Réflexions in Ashley’s own series Economic Classics was published in 1898. Also the use of many other texts from Ashley’s Economic Classics as well as his use relevant chapters of his own Economic History are strong evidence that we are dealing with Ashley’s course.

Ashley resigned from Harvard effect September 1, 1901. He did not offer Economics 15 in his final year.

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Course Enrollment

Primarily for Graduates:—

[Economics] 15. Professor Ashley. — The History and Literature of Economics to the close of the Eighteenth Century. Lectures (2 or 3 hours).

Total 11: 6 Graduates, 2 Seniors, 2 Juniors, 1 Sophomore.

Source: Harvard University. Annual Report of the President of Harvard College, 1899-1900, p. 69.

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Cf. Course Announcement
1897-98

[Economics] 15. The History and Literature of Economics to the Close of the Eighteenth Century. Mon., Wed., (and at the pleasure of the instructor) Fri., at 12. Professor ASHLEY.

The course of economic speculation will here be followed, in its relation alike to the general movement of contemporary thought and to contemporary social conditions. The lectures will consider the economic theories of Plato and Aristotle; the economic ideas underlying Roman law; the mediaeval church and the canonist doctrine; mercantilism in its diverse forms; “political arithmetic;” the origin of the belief in natural rights and its influence on economic thought; the physiocratic doctrine; the work and influence of Adam Smith; the doctrine of population as presented by Malthus; Say and the French school; and the beginnings of academic instruction in economics.

The lectures will be interrupted from time to time for the examination of selected portions of particular authors; and careful study will be given to portions of Plato’s Republic and Aristotle’s Politics (in translation) to Mun’s England’s Treasure, Locke’s Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest, certain Essays of Hume, Turgot’s Réflexions, and specified chapters of Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, and Malthus’ Essay . Students taking the course are expected to procure the texts of the chief authors considered, and to consult the following critical works:

Ingram, History of Political Economy; Cossa, Introduction to the Study of Political Economy; Cannan, History of the Theories of Production and Distribution; Bonar, Philosophy and Political Economy; Böhm-Bawerk, Capital and Interest; Taussig, Wages and Capital.

Source: Harvard University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Division of History and Political Science Comprising the Departments of History and Government and Economics, 1897-98, pp. 33-34. 

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ECONOMICS 15.

PRESCRIBED READING.

Ingram, History of Political Economy. [Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black, 1888.]

Taussig, Wages and Capital, pp. 124-215. [New York: D. Appleton and company, 1896.]

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Plato, The Republic, 368-376, 414-424, 462-465, 473 [note: these are not page numbers but rather text section numbers printed in margins], in the translation either of Jowett or of Davies and Vaughan [London and New York: Macmillan, 1892]; with Jowett’s Introduction. pp. cli-clxxv, clxxxv-cxcii.  [Jowett’s third edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1888]

Aristotle, The Politics, Bk. I and Bk. II, 1-7, in Jowett’s translation; with Jowett’s Introduction, pp. ix-xxxvii. [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885]

The teaching of mediaeval Schoolmen and Canonists; as set forth in Ashley, Economic History, I, pp. 124-159, II, ch. vi.  [2nd edition. 1892-93.]

Mun, England’s Treasure by Forraign Trade. [See this title in Ashley’s “Economic Classics”. London: Macmillan, 1895.]

Locke, Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest. (in Ward, Lock & Co.’s edition of his Essays, pp. 559-614).

Hume, Essays, “Of Commerce” (23), “Of Money” (25), “Of Interest” (26), “Of the Balance of Trade” (27), “Of Taxes” (30). [David Hume. Essays, Literary, Moral, and Political. London: Ward, Lock & Bowden, Limited, printed sometime after Aug 1891 and 1897. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100193633].

Turgot, Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses (in [L.] Robineau’s Turgot [Administration et oeuvres Économiques] in “Petite Bibliothèque Economique” [Paris: Guillaumin et Cie (1889), pp. 46-148; or English translation in Ashley’s “Economic Classics”. London: Macmillan, 1898.]

Adam Smith, “Select Chapters and Passages from The Wealth of Nations [See this title in Ashley’s “Economic Classics”. New York and London: Macmillan, 1895.]

Malthus, “Parallel Chapters of the 1st and 2d editions of An Essay on the Principle of Population” [See this title in Ashley’s “Economic Classics”. New York and London: Macmillan, 1895.]

Ricardo, Principles of Political Economy, ch. I-VI. [See this title in Ashley’s “Economic Classics”: New York and London: Macmillan, 1895.]

J. S. Mill, Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy, II-V. [2nd ed. London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1874.]

Two theses are required: one, before the Christmas Recess, on Mercantilism (illustrated from Mun, or any other important mercantilist writer); the other, before the Spring Recess, on Physiocracy (with a discussion of Turgot’s relation thereto).

Source: Harvard University Archives. Syllabi, course outlines and reading lists in Economics, 1895-2003. HUC(522.2.1) Box 10. Folder “Economics, Undated (5 of 5)”.

Image Source: “Ashley, William James, 1860–” in University and their Sons. History, Influence and Characteristics of American Universities with Biographical Sketches and Portraits of Alumni and Recipients of Honorary Degrees. Editor-in-chief, General Joshua L. Chamberlain, LL.D. Vol II (1899), p. 595.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Law and Economics

Harvard. Law of industrial relations. Course description, enrollment, final exam. Wyman, 1910-1911

Besides principles of accounting the Harvard economics department also offered Professor Bruce Wyman’s course on the law of industrial relations for undergraduates contemplating careers in business. This post provides material for the 1910-11 academic year.

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Course material from earlier years

1901-02. Autobiographical note, enrollment, course description, syllabus, exams.

1902-03. Obituary, enrollment, course description, exams.

1903-04. Enrollment and exams.

1904-05. Enrollment, course description, exams.

1905-06. Enrollment, paper assignments, exams.

1906-07. Enrollment, paper topics, exams.

1908-09. Enrollment and exams.

1909-10. Enrollment and exam.

1910. About Wyman’s reputation as a soft-grader (a “snapper problem”) and the scandal that led to the resignation of his Harvard law professorship in 1913.

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Course Teaching Assistant 

Robert Mann Johnson. Harvard A.B. 1908, LL.B. 1911.

Source: Harvard University. Quinquennial catalogue of the officers and graduates 1636-1930, pp. 1043.

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 Johnson graduated from Boston Latin School in 1905. He was working for American Telephone & Telegraph Co. New York City, N.Y. in 1918.

Source: Graduates of the Public Latin School in Boston, 1816-1917. Boston: 1918.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

World War I Selective Service Registration Card (May 1917)

Robert Mann Johnson, b. 28 Feb 1888 in North Weymouth Massachusetts

Home address: 808 Cranston St, Cranston, R.I.

Employed by American Tel. & Telegraph Co. 195 Broadway

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Married Margaret M. Callahan  30 Aug 1919 in NYC. Two daughters.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

World War II, Selective Service Registration Card (26 April 1942)

Robert Mann Johnson b. 28 Feb 1888 in Weymouth, Massachusetts

Home address: 350 East 25 St., Brooklyn, Kings, New York.

Employer’s Name and Address: Milbank, Tweed and Hope. 15 Broad St. NYC

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Robert Mann Johnson died 29 July 1948, NYC of a heart attack as he entered his law firm at 15 Broad St. He lived at 58 Linwood Road, Scarsdale. From his obits:  he practiced law in Massachusetts before going to New York and being admitted to the New York bar in 1921. First with the firm of Masten and Nichols from 1928-1931. Later with the firm of Milbank, Tweed, Hope and Hadley since 1931.

Source: Daily News (New York City), 30 July 1948, p. 49.  The Herald Statesman (Yonkers, NY) 30 July 1948, p. 2.

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Course Announcement and Description
1910-11

[Economics] 21 2hf. Principles of Law governing Industrial Relations. Half-course (second half-year). Mon., Wed., Fri., at 9. Mr. Joseph Warren [sic], assisted by Mr. R. M. Johnson.

Course 21 is not open to students before their last year of undergraduate work. The course considers certain rules of the law governing the course of modern trade and the organization of modern industry. The problems brought forward are actual and the rules of law discussed are specific, so that the instruction may prove of service in a business career. The course forms a natural introduction to the study of law, as it involves many of the elementary principles. And as the course deals with adjudication and legislation on questions of first importance in the economic development of modern times, it may also be of advantage to all those who wish to equip themselves for the intelligent discussion of issues having both legal and economic aspects. In 1910-11 four principal topics will be discussed: Competition; Combination; Association; Consolidation, — some very briefly, some with more detail. The conduct of the course will be by the reading and discussion of cases from the law reports which are contained in an edited series of case books.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VII No. 23 (June 21, 1910), p. 62.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 21 1hf. Professor Wyman, assisted by Messr. R. M. Johnson. — Principles of Law governing Industrial Relations.

Total 164: 4 Graduates, 103 Seniors, 47 Juniors, 3 Sophomores, 3 Freshmen, 4 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 50.

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ECONOMICS 21
Mid-year Examination, 1910-11

Give reasons clearly

  1. Two railroads, the A railroad and the X railroad, run from L to M. The X railroad lets shippers from L to M know that if they will agree to ship all their freight by this road they will be given free cartage at M for the delivery of their goods. By this means several very profitable shippers are induced to stop shipping by the A road altogether. Can the A road have an injunction in its own right, or must it wait for the Attorney General to take action?
  2. In the construction of a certain building there are employed certain members of the roofers’ union, the plasterers’ union, etc., etc. These unions are all affiliated with a local trades’ council. The roofers strike for higher wages, and, not getting an immediate response to their demands, they appeal to the trades’ council which calls a general strike on the building. The strikers thereupon put advertisements in the local newspapers requesting that no laboring man shall take the place of any striker. They also station two pickets at the head of the street leading to the house to distribute copies of this advertisement to people coming down the street, the pickets having strict orders not even to engage anyone in conversation. What injunction can the contractors who are building a house get under these circumstances?
  3. A retail druggists’ association is formed in a certain city, its membership including practically all the druggists in that city except A, who is a notorious rate cutter. The association votes that none of its members shall buy any of the remedies made by any manufacturer who shall sell to A without making A agree not to cut the regular price, provided, however, that any member of the association may send a special order to any manufacturer in response to the request of a particular costume. A is now not able continue his price cutting sales, which have been a source of great profit to him. Can he sue X, a member of the association, against whom he has a particular grudge, for all the damages he has suffered?
  4. In a certain partnership there are two partners X and I. Their partnership articles state that their business is to buy and sell drygoods. A salesman comes to their office and begins to negotiate with X a sale of print goods at a distinctly high price and succeeds in inducing X to feel that an extraordinarily large purchase of these goods would be advisable. Y comes in just before the contract is made and protests against it: X nevertheless signs the contract on behalf of the firm. Any reasonable man in the trade would say that the purchase was a foolish one. X dies the next day. Can Y cancel the contract?
  5. A corporation which is the result of the merger of concerns manufacturing 60% of the wall paper in the United States adopts the policy of selling its products only to jobbers, billing it to them at a very high price, but giving them at settlement time a rebate of 33 1/3 % provided that the selling company is satisfied that the jobbers have not handled the wall paper of any other manufacturers during the period covered by the settlement. One jobber after having got and resold wall paper billed to him at $100,000, refuses to make any payment to the wall paper corporation when settlement day comes. How much can the wall paper corporation recover from him?
  6. A director in a railroad corporation makes a contract with it to sell it a steamboat, for which he has paid $500,000, for $500,000. Impartial appraisers would not consider the steamboat worth more than $450,000. The steamboat is delivered to the railroad corporation which has already sent it on one voyage to get freight to carry over its line, when it is sunk by an accident. The railroad has not as yet paid the director for the steamboat. How much can he get from the railroad?
  7. Four manufacturers of iron pipe form a pool agreeing among themselves not to sell below a certain price, to be fixed from time to time by a central committee. To secure the performance of this agreement by each member, each member deposits with a certain trust company $25,000, with the provision that any member breaking the agreement shall forfeit his deposit to the remaining members of the pool. One of the four members of the pool breaks from the pool, whereupon the other three decide to dissolve it. The trust company refuses to pay out any of the money. How much can one of the remaining three concerns recover by suing the trust company?
  8. The principal manufacturers of plumbers’ supplies agree among themselves at a meeting of their association that no member of the association shall sell on credit to any plumber whose indebtedness to any member has not been settled within three months after his bills were due, reserving to any member the right to sell for cash to any plumber, however much he may be in arrears to any member of the association. Is this such a combination as to come within the provisions of the Federal Anti-Trust law, so that a plumber whose business is injured by the enforcement of these policies may sue one of its members for treble damages?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers, Mid-Years, 1910-11.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Public Finance

Harvard. Public Finance. Course description, enrollment, semester exams. Bullock, 1910-1911

It is not only inquisitorial; but public morality forbids that the taxpayer should be forced to do any more hard swearing than he already does.

The field of public finance, especially with regard to issues of taxation, was covered at Harvard in the early decades of the 20th century by Professor Charles Jesse Bullock. 

From 1906: Selected Readings in Public Finance edited by Charles Jesse Bullock (Boston: Inn & Company).

From 1910: Short bibliography on public finance “for serious minded students” by Bullock

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Earlier versions of the course
by year and instructor

1906-07

https://www.irwincollier.com/harvard-public-finance-and-taxation-enrollments-and-final-exams-bullock-1906-1907/

1907-08

https://www.irwincollier.com/harvard-public-finance-and-taxation-exams-bullock-1907-1908/

1908-09

https://www.irwincollier.com/harvard-examinations-in-public-finance-especially-taxation-bullock-1908-1909/

1909-10 (half-course, American Taxation)

https://www.irwincollier.com/harvard-american-taxation-course-description-enrollment-and-final-exam-bullock-and-huse-1909-1910/

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Course Announcement and Description
1910-11

[Economics] 16 Public Finance (advanced course). Mon., Wed., Fri., at 9. Professor Bullock.

This course is designed for graduate students and for undergraduates who are especially interested in public finance. It cannot be elected by students who have taken Economics 7 [Public Finance course exclusively offered to undergraduates], except by express consent of the instructor.

The course is devoted to the examination of the financial institutions of the principal modern countries, in the light of both theory and history. One or more reports calling for independent investigation will ordinarily be required. Special emphasis will be placed upon questions of American finance.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VII No. 23 (June 21, 1910), pp. 60.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 16. Professor Bullock. — Public Finance (advanced course).

Total 7: 5 Graduates, 1 Senior, 1 Junior.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

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ECONOMICS 16
Mid-year Examination, 1910-11

  1. Discuss briefly the classifications of public revenues offered by Smith, Cohn, Bastable, and Seligman.
  2. Discuss the course of development of three classes of public expenditures in the nineteenth century.
  3. Analyze the effects of non-commercial expenditures, with a view to supplying the data necessary for judging of the legitimacy of such expenditures.
  4. What policy should a modern state pursue with respect to public ownership of arable land, forests, and mines?
  5. What fiscal policy would you favor for the following public industries: the post office, railroads, water works, gas works?
  6. What has been the position of commercial revenues in national and local budgets since 1850?
  7. In what departments of public service and to what extent should fees be used by a modern state?
  8. Discuss the relation of taxation to benefits.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers, Mid-Years, 1910-11.

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ECONOMICS 16
Year-End Examination, 1910-11

  1. Discuss double taxation in the United States.
  2. Discus the taxation of incomes in Switzerland and the United States.
  3. Discuss the past and present status of the property tax in Europe.
  4. Discuss the past and present status of the property tax in the United States.
  5. Discuss briefly the history of excise taxation in Europe during the nineteenth century.
  6. Discuss the present custom revenues of Great Britain, France, and Germany.
  7. Discuss the incidence of taxes on mortgages in the American states.
  8. Discuss state supervision of the assessment of property in the American states.

Source: Papers set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics, …, Landscape Architecture, Music in Harvard College. June 1911, p. 52. In Harvard University Archives, Examination papers, 1873-1915 (HUC 7000.25). Box 9. Examination Papers, 1910-11, p. 52.

Image Source:  No Income Tax! by Charles Jay Taylor illustrator on the cover of Puck (24 January 1894).   “Print shows a scene at the ‘Income Tax Office’ with a crowd clamoring at the door where a notice states ‘One at a Time’; inside, a wealthy man is standing by a desk, on the floor at his feet, in his hat, are papers labeled ‘Personal Property Tax Sworn Off’, ‘Tax on Capital Sworn Off’, and ‘Tax on Investments’, he kisses the Bible while a government official sits at the desk with his right hand raised.” Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard History of Economics

Harvard. Exams for the history of economics up to 1848. Bullock, 1910-1911

Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot

Six Harvard graduate students were led through economic thought from the Ancient Greeks through the Scottish Enlightenment by Professor Charles Jesse Bullock in 1910-11. That material could have been covered in the General Examination in economic theory that at that time included the history of economic ideas.

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Earlier versions of the course
by year and instructor

1899-1900. The History and Literature of Economics to the close of the Eighteenth Century. [William James Ashley]

1901-02. History and Literature of Economics, to the opening of the Nineteenth Century. [Charles Whitney Mixter]

1903-04. History and Literature of Economics to the opening of the Nineteenth Century [Charles Jesse Bullock]

1904-05. History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848. [Charles Jesse Bullock]

1905-06. History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848. [Charles Jesse Bullock]

1906-07. History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848 [Charles Jesse Bullock]

1907-08. History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848 [Charles Jesse Bullock]

1908-09. History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848 [Charles Jesse Bullock]

1909-10. History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848 [Charles Jesse Bullock]

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Course Announcement and Description
1910-11

[Economics] 15. History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848. Mon., Wed., and (at the pleasure of the instructor) Fri., at 11. Professor Bullock.

            The purpose of this course is to trace the development of economic thought from classical antiquity to the middle of the nineteenth century. Emphasis is placed upon the relation of economics to philosophical and political theories, as well as to political and industrial conditions.

            A considerable amount of reading of prominent writers will be assigned, and opportunity given for the preparation of theses. Much of the instruction is necessarily given by means of lectures.

            No undergraduates will be admitted to the course who are not candidates for honors in economics.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VII No. 23 (June 21, 1910), p. 54.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 15. Professor Bullock. — History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848.

Total 6: 6 Graduates.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

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ECONOMICS 15
Mid-year Examination, 1910-11

  1. How did Aristotle classify the various branches of the art of acquisition?
  2. What ideas concerning value are found in the works of the leading Greek and Roman writers?
  3. Discuss Aristotle’s criticism of Plato’s communism.
  4. Discuss the economic opinions of Xenophon.
  5. What views concerning commerce were held by Aristotle, Xenophon, and Thomas Aquinas?
  6. What traces of the influence of Aristotle do you find in the theories of the Schoolmen concerning just price and usury?
  7. Discuss Ashley’s views of the Scholastic doctrine of usury.
  8. Discuss the change that occurred in the doctrine of usury between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers, Mid-Years, 1910-11.

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ECONOMICS 15
Year-End Examination, 1910-11 

  1. Discuss briefly the development of theories of interest from Aquinas to Turgot.
  2. Discuss the economic opinions of John Hales.
  3. Discuss the relation of mercantilism to the economic thought of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
  4. Discuss the economic opinions of Mun and Davenant.
  5. Discuss the theories of Boisguilbert and Cantillon.
  6. Compare English mercantilism with French and Italian.
  7. Discuss critically Ingram’s treatment of mercantilism.
  8. Discuss Adam Smith’s relation to earlier ethical and political thought; his relation to mercantilist writers; his indebtedness to the physiocrats. How far can his work claim originality?

Source: Papers set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics, …, Landscape Architecture, Music in Harvard College. June 1911, p. 44. In Harvard University Archives, Examination papers, 1873-1915 (HUC 7000.25). Box 9. Examination Papers, 1910-11, p. 51.

Image Source: Chateau de Versailles. Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, intendant et ministre des Finances (1727-1781).

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Socialism

Harvard. Methods of Social Reform. Course description, enrollment, final exam. Carver, 1910-1911

Seeds of Socialism

In this post you find the final exam, course description, and enrollment figures for the eighth iteration of Thomas Nixon Carver’s course that dealt with schemes of social reform, socialism/communism/single-tax. The economics of socialism was offered in some form or other throughout the first half of the twentieth century. 1910-11 was still a long-way from the great debates about the desirability/feasibility of central planning. 

Links to earlier and selected later versions of the course.

Brief bibliography by Carver for serious students on the economics of socialism (1910)

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Course Announcement and Description
1910-11

14b 2hf. Methods of Social Reform. — Socialism, Communism, the Single Tax. Half-course (second half-year). Tu., Th., at 1.30. Professor Carver.

A study of those plans of social amelioration which involve either a reorganization of society, or a considerable extension of the functions of the state. The course begins with a critical examination of the theories of the leading socialistic writers, with a view to getting a clear understanding of the reasoning which lies back of socialistic movements, and of the economic conditions which tend to make this reasoning acceptable. A similar study will be made of the Single Tax Movement, of State Socialism and the public ownership of monopolistic enterprises, and of Christian Socialism, so called.

This course is open only to those who have passed satisfactorily in Course 14a.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VII No. 23 (June 21, 1910), pp. 53-54.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 14b 2hf. Professor Carver. — Methods of Social Reform. Socialism, Communism, the Single Tax, etc.

Total 73: 6 Graduates, 20 Seniors, 32 Juniors, 7 Sophomore, 1 Freshman, 7 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

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ECONOMICS 14b
Year-End Examination, 1910-11

Give as full and complete answers
as possible in the time allowed.
Allow about thirty minutes to each question.
  1. In what respects are socialism and anarchism alike and in what respects are they unlike?
  2. Comment briefly upon the leading points in the creed of “orthodox socialism.”
  3. Compare the views of the socialist and the economist as to the source of interest.
  4. Compare economic competition with political competition as a means of selecting men to manage the productive resources of a country.
  5. Discuss the question: Is it better that the income derived from the rent of land should go to private individuals to be expended by them, or that it should go into the public treasury to be expended by public officials?
  6. Discuss the question: Would the single tax eliminate poverty?

Source: Papers set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics, …, Landscape Architecture, Music in Harvard College. June 1911, p. 44. In Harvard University Archives, Examination papers, 1873-1915 (HUC 7000.25). Box 9. Examination Papers, 1910-11, p. 51.

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Earlier Course Materials

Pre-Carver
Carver’s courses
Post-Carver:

 

Image Source:  Udo J. Keppler, “The Seeds of Socialism” from Puck (12 February 1908). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.

A gigantic boar wearing a crown with “$” and a shawl labeled “Plutocratic Greed” and holding the U.S. Capitol dome labeled “Special Privilege”, inverted to form a bucket from which it is sowing seeds labeled “Abuse of Power, Arrogance, [and] Contempt of Law”onto a field sprouting “Socialist votes”. It is stepping on an American flag and a Liberty cap.

Categories
Distribution Exam Questions Harvard

Harvard. Income Distribution. Course description, enrollment, final exam. Carver, 1910-11

The Crabbed Millionaire's Puzzle

This course by Thomas Nixon Carver on the distribution of wealth, appears from the exam questions and the course description to have been a course on the theory of the functional distribution of income. 

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From earlier semesters

1904-05
1905-06
1907-08
1908-09
1909-10

’The course content is undoubtedly captured in Carver’s 1904 book The Distribution of Wealth which was reprinted several times during his lifetime.

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Course Announcement and Description
1910-11

14a 1hf. The Distribution of Wealth. Half-course (first half-year). Tu., Th., at 1.30. Professor Carver.

This course begins with an analysis of the theory of value. The attempt is then made to formulate a positive theory of distribution helpful in explaining the actual incomes of the various classes of producers. Finally the question of justice in distribution is considered.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VII No. 23 (June 21, 1910), p. 53.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 14a 1hf. Professor Carver. — The Distribution of Wealth.

Total 86: 6 Graduates, 28 Seniors, 36 Juniors, 9 Sophomores, 2 Freshmen, 5 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

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ECONOMICS 14a1
Mid-year Examination, 1910-11

  1. What is meant by the margin of cultivation?
  2. What would you suggest as a method of raising wages?
  3. Are wages “drawn from” capital or from product? Explain clearly the meaning which you give to the words “drawn from.”
  4. Discuss the question: Does the rent of land enter into the price of products?
  5. Do laborers as a class, or capitalists as a class, gain more from inventions and improvements in production? Give your reasons.
  6. What is the relation of risk to profits?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers, Mid-Years, 1910-11.

Image Source: The Crabbed Millionaire’s Puzzle by J. S. Pughe. Puck (7 August 1901). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Categories
Business Cycles Exam Questions Harvard

Harvard. Commercial Crises and Trade Cycles. Description, enrollment, final exam. Day, 1910-11

After a year gap, a business cycle course was offered in 1910-11 with a new instructor, Edmund Ezra Day. One-third of the exam was devoted to “‘barometers’ or indices of general business conditions”.

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About Edmund Ezra Day

https://www.irwincollier.com/harvard-1909-phd-alumnus-edmund-ezra-day-cornell-memorial-minute-1951/

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Earlier Exams 

1902/03-1907/08. Commercial Crises and Trade Cycles (A.P. Andrew)

1908/09. Commercial Crises and Trade Cycles (Wesley Clair Mitchell)

1909/10. Not offered.

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Course Announcement and Description
1910-11

12 1hf. Commercial Crises and Cycles of Trade. Half-course (first half-year). Mon., Wed., Fri., at 10. Dr. Day.

            Course 12 begins with a brief review of the more important crises occurring before 1870. This is followed by an intensive study of the cycles of trade culminating in the crises of 1873, 1893, and 1907. The influence upon commercial fluctuations of the present organization of industry, of government finance, of foreign trade, of agricultural conditions, of the money supply, of speculation, of banking methods, and of other such factors is discussed. The so-called barometers of trade are examined. Finally some consideration is given to the theory of economic crises, to the methods which have been employed in different countries for relieving crises, and to proposed reforms designed to prevent them.

            Written work, in the preparation of short papers on assigned topics, will be required of all students.

            The course is open only to those who have passed satisfactorily in Economics 1.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VII No. 23 (June 21, 1910), p. 59.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 12 1hf. Dr. E.E. Day. — Commercial Crises and Cycles of Trade.

Total 99: 1 Graduate, 40 Seniors, 43Juniors, 10 Sophomores, 2 Freshmen, 3 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

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ECONOMICS 12
Mid-year Examination, 1910-11

Give at least one-third of your time to Part II.
I
  1. “The real cause of the crisis of 1893 was the bungling and incompetent legislation of our Federal Government.” Was this so? If so, why? If not, why not?
  2. In what particulars were the conditions in the United States prior to the crisis of 1857 similar to those before 1907? In what respects were the conditions different?
  3. Describe accurately the relation between:—
    1. (1) Changes in the price level and (2) merchandise imports and exports.
    2. (1) Merchandise imports and exports and (2) international gold movements.
    3. (1) International gold movements and (2) banking reserves.
  4. In the theory of crises what is meant by overproduction? To what different causes may this overproduction be assigned?

II

  1. Arrange in the order of importance the following “barometers” or indices of general business conditions: —
    1. Wheat production.
    2. Cotton production.
    3. Railroad construction.
    4. Price of pig iron.
    5. New York bank clearings.
    6. Business failures.

Analyze the value and limitations of each of these indices. 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers, Mid-Years, 1910-11.

Image Source: “A dangerous bubble” by J.S. Pughe. Illustration published in Puck (22 October 1902). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.

Categories
Economic History Exam Questions Harvard

Harvard. Modern Economic History of Europe. Description, Enrollment, Exams. Gay, 1910-1911

Facciata di Palazzo San Giorgio visto dal Bigo - Genova

European and U.S. economic history were charter subjects within the discipline of economics (née political economy) from its earliest days. This post adds Edwin F. Gay’s exam questions for his course on modern European economic history taught at Harvard 1910-11. 

Bonus material:

Links to earlier course material for European Economic History from Harvard, 1883-84 through 1909-10.

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Course Announcement and Description
1910-11

  1. Modern Economic History of Europe. Tu., Th., and (at the pleasure of the instructor) Sat., at 10. Professor Gay and Dr. Gray.
    [note the enrollment figures only has Professor Gay as the course instructor]

At the outset a survey will be made of economic and social conditions in the chief European countries at the close of the Middle Ages. The history of agriculture, industry, and commerce in the succeeding periods down to the beginning of the nineteenth century will then be treated in some detail. England will receive the emphasis due to its increasing importance during this period.

Course 11 is open to students who have taken Economics 1 or History 1.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VI,I No. 23 (June 21, 1910), pp. 56.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 11. Professor Gay. — Modern Economic History of Europe.

Total 9: 6 Graduates, 2 Seniors, 1 Junior.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

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ECONOMICS 11
Mid-year Examination, 1910-11

  1. Trace the history of copyhold tenure in England to the time of Sir Edward Coke.
  2. Describe the agrarian development of different parts of Germany from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
Answer three of the following questions.
  1. Compare the development and organization of the woolen industry in the Rhine valley, in Florence, and in England.
  2. Upon what sources are based modern studies of population and wealth in mediaeval towns? What definite results have been reached? To what extent was the mediaeval merchant a wholesale trader?
  3. State Unwin’s views regarding the differentiation of classes within English crafts, and examine the evidence adduced.
  4. …“we are led to the principle that the work of townsmen should yield them a sufficient satisfaction of the necessities of life … since only the well-being of individuals was the aim … it was necessary to see to it that there be the greatest possible equality in the division of output among individual producers … hence free competition was excluded.” Discuss this view of the purpose of the craft gild, illustrating from any special study of your own.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers, Mid-Years, 1910-11.

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ECONOMICS 11
Year-end Examination, 1910-11

  1. Comment on the following statement, giving illustrations:
    “The whole internal history of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is summed up in the opposition of the economic policy of the state to that of the town, the district, and the several estates. [Both in domestic and foreign policy] questions of political power were at issue, which were, at the same time, questions of economic organization.”
  2. Criticise the following statement: “the domestic system existed in England from the earliest times till it was superseded by capitalism; … craft gilds were a form of industrial organization which was appropriate to the domestic rather than to the capitalist system.”
  3. —
    1. Outline the history of English commerce from Elizabeth to the younger Pitt.
    2. It is stated that the total value of exports and imports for England and France was as follows for the years here given: —

England
£

France
livres

1613

 4,628,586
1750 20,471,120 1750

355,202,357

1800

 62,639,398 1789

758,104,000

Are these figures of equal statistical value? What conclusions may be drawn from a comparison of English and French commercial statistics during this period?

  1. —
    1. Describe briefly the price movement of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, its extent, character, causes, and results.
    2. What are the difficulties in comparing the purchasing power of a shilling in 1450, 1550, and 1911?
  2. What connection exists between: —
    1. the Casa di San Giorgio and modern banking?
    2. the “lettre de foire” and the bill of exchange?
    3. the Statute of Artificers and changes in the gild system?
    4. the Navigation Acts and the decline of Holland?

Source: Papers set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics, …, Landscape Architecture, Music in Harvard College. June 1911, p. 44. In Harvard University Archives, Examination papers, 1873-1915 (HUC 7000.25). Box 9. Examination Papers, 1910-11, pp. 48-49.

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Links to earlier course material for
European Economic History.
Harvard 1883-84 through 1909-10

1883-84. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [C.F. Dunbar]
1884-85. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [C.F. Dunbar]
1885-86. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [C.F. Dunbar]
1886-87. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [C.F. Dunbar]
1887-88. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [C.F. Dunbar]
1888-89. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [Gray]
1889-90. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [A.C. Miller]
1890-91. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [C.F. Dunbar]
1891-92. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [W.M. Cole]
1892-93. Economics 4. Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. [W.M. Cole]
1892-93. Economics 10. Economic History of Europe and America, to 1763. [W.J. Ashley]
1893-94. Economics 10. Elements of Economic History from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. [W.J. Ashley]
1893-94. Economics 13. Development of Land Tenures and of Agrarian Conditions in Europe. [W.J. Ashley]
1894-95. Economics 10. Elements of Economic History from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. [W.J. Ashley]
1895-96. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [W.J. Ashley]
1896-97. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe and America [W.J. Ashley]
1897-98. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe and America [W.J. Ashley]
1898-99. Economics 8. Western Civilization, mediaeval and modern, in its Economic Aspects [W. Cunningham, Reading List]
1898-99. Economics 11. Industrial Revolution in England. [W. Cunningham]
1899-1900. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe [W.J. Ashley, Reading List]
1900-01. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [W.J. Ashley]
1901-02. No course in European economic history offered.
1902-03. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [E.F. Gay]
1902-03. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe [E.F. Gay]
1903-04. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [not offered]
1903-04. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe [E.F. Gay]
1903-04. Economics 24. General Outlines of Agrarian History [E.F. Gay]
1904-05. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [E.F. Gay, only one student enrolled, no printed exam available]
1904-05. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe [E.F. Gay]
1905-06. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [E.F. Gay]
1905-06. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe [E.F. Gay]
1906-07. Economics 6a. European Industry and Commerce in the Nineteenth Century. [E.F. Gay]
1906-07. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [not offered]
1906-07. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe [E.F. Gay]
1907-08. Economics 6a. European Industry and Commerce in the Nineteenth Century. [E.F. Gay]
1907-08. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [not offered]
1907-08. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe. [E.F. Gay]
1908-09. Economics 6a. European Industry and Commerce in the Nineteenth Century. [E.F. Gay with M.T. Copeland]
1908-09. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe. [not offered]
1908-09. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe. [not offered]
1909-10. Economics 6a. European Industry and Commerce in the Nineteenth Century. [E.F. Gay with H. L. Gray]
1909-10. Economics 10. Mediaeval Economic History of Europe [H.L. Gray]
1909-10. Economics 11. Modern Economic History of Europe [E.F. Gay]

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Image Source: Facciata di Palazzo San Giorgio visto dal Bigo – Genova by Sidvis from Wikimedia Commons. Creative Commons license.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Labor

Harvard. Problems of Labor. Course description, enrollment and exam. Ripley, 1910-1911

New York City, Labor Day Parade (1909)

For the institutional economist William Zebina Ripley at Harvard, trade unions and corporations were central for an understanding of the economy. In the 1910-11 academic year his course, Problems of Labor, completed its ninth iteration.

Beginning with this post on Harvard labor economics, Economics in the Rear-view Mirror will provide links to all previous labor course material transcribed and posted:

Links to previous Harvard labor exams 1892-93 to 1909-10.

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Labor Bibliographies
Prepared by Ripley

Short Bibliography of Trade Unionism, 1910.

Short Bibliography of Strikes and Boycotts, 1910.

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Course Announcement, Description
1910-11

9a 1hf. Problems of Labor. Half-course (first half-year); Tu., Th., and (at the pleasure of the instructor) Sat., at 1.30. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. [Ralph Cahoon] Whitnack.

This course will deal mainly with the economic and social relations of employer and employed, with especial reference to legislation. Among the topics included will be, — collective bargaining; labor organizations; factory legislation in the United States and Europe; strikes, strike legislation and legal decisions; conciliation and arbitration; employers’ liability and compulsory compensation; compulsory insurance with particular reference to European experience; the problem of the unemployed; apprenticeship, and trade and technical education.

Each student will make at least one report upon a labor union, from the original documents. Two lectures a week, with one recitation, will be the usual practice.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VII No. 23 (June 21, 1910), pp. 58-59.

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Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 9a 1hf. Professor Ripley, assisted by Mr. [Ralph Cahoon] Whitnack. — Problems of Labor.

Total 64: 6 Graduates, 17 Seniors, 29 Juniors, 8 Sophomores, 1 Freshman, 3 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

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ECONOMICS 9a1
Mid-Year Examination, 1910-11

  1. Under the compulsory German insurance laws, who pays the premiums for (a) accident, (b) sickness, (c) old age, insurance, respectively?
  2. What are some of the abuses of private employment offices in the United States? What is alleged to be one of the main objections to the establishment of public employment offices? What has been the experience in Germany and the United States in this regard?
  3. As contrasted with English conditions, what is the main dificulty to be considered in the proposed adoption of “workmen’s compensation” legislation in Massachusetts?
  4. What is the one great advantage from the employers’ standpoint of the German over the English system in respect of accident insurance?
  5. New Zealand provided by law for both conciliation boards and courts of arbitration for labor disputes. What has been the experience with the former?
  6. The western locomotive engineers have recently endeavored to secure the adoption of a wage scale granting much higher wages to drivers of compound Mallet engines; not simply because more labor was needed to handle them, but largely because they could haul twice the tonnage of freight. What would be the engineers’ probable motive? Is this anything in principle like a premium plan of paying for labor? Discuss it.
  7. Explain the nature of an injunction. What was its origin in law, and how did it become applicable to the prosecution of labor disputes?
  8. What English statute resulted from the Taff Vale decision in England? Have we any law or, in your judgment, need of such a law in the United States?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers, Mid-Years, 1910-11.

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Previous Labor Courses at Harvard

1892-93. The Social and Economic Condition of Workingmen in the U.S. and in Other Countries (E. Cummings)
1893-94. The Social and Economic Condition of Workingmen in the U.S. and in Other Countries (E. Cummings)
1894-95. The Social and Economic Condition of Workingmen in the U.S. and in Other Countries (E. Cummings)
1895-96. The Social and Economic Condition of Workingmen in the U.S. and in Other Countries (E. Cummings)
1896-97. The Labor Question in Europe and the U.S. (J. and E. Cummings)
1897-98. The Labor Question in Europe and the U.S. (J. and E. Cummings)
1898-99. The Labor Question in Europe and the U.S. (E. Cummings)
1899-1900. The Labor Question in Europe and the U.S. (Omitted)
1900-01. The Labor Question in Europe and the U.S. (W.F. Willoughby)
1901-02. The Labor Question in Europe and the U.S. (E.D. Durand)
1902-03. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)
1903-04. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)
1904-05. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)
1905-06. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)
1906-07. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)
1907-08. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)
1908-09. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)
1909-10. Problems of Labor (W.Z. Ripley)

Image Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Phtographs Online. Women on float of the Women’s Auxiliary Typographical Union in New York City’s Labor Day parade, published 6 September 1909.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard International Economics

Harvard. Banking and Foreign Exchange. Course description, enrollment, and examination. Day, 1910-1911

Edmund Ezra Day was awarded his Harvard economics Ph.D. in 1909 and he was subsequently appointed assistant professor of economics in 1910-11. This was a transition year for monetary economics at Harvard. In 1911-12 Day consolidated the three half-courses Econ 8a (Money), Econ 8b (Banking and Foreign Exchange), and Econ 12 (Commerical Crises and Cycles of Trade)into the full course “Money, Banking, and Commercial Crises.”

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Exams from earlier years

1906-07. Banking and Foreign Exchange (A.P. Andrew)
1907-08. Banking and Foreign Exchange (A.P. Andrew)
1908-09. Banking and Foreign Exchange (W.C. Mitchell)
1909-10. Banking and Foreign Exchange (O.M.W. Sprague)

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Economics 8b
Course Description
1910-11

8b 2hf. Banking and Foreign Exchange. Half-course (second half-year). Mon., Wed., Fri., at 1.30. Dr. [Edmund Ezra] Day.

In Course 8b, after a summary view of early forms of the development, legislation, and present practice of banking in leading countries, — such as England, Scotland, France, Germany, and Canada, — are reviewed and contrasted. Particular attention is given to banking history and experience in this country: the two United States banks; the more important features of banking in the separate states before 1860; the beginnings, growth, operation, and proposed modification of the national banking system; and credit institutions outside that system, such as state banks and trust companies; and the growth and influence of the independent government treasury.

The peculiarities of the money markets of London, Paris, Berlin, and New York are examined, and the various factors, such as stock exchange dealings, and international exchange payments, which bring about fluctuations in the demand for loans, and the rate of discount in these markets will be considered.

Written work, in the preparation of short papers on assigned topics, and a regular course of prescribed reading will be required of all students.

The course is open to those who have taken Economics 1.

Source: History and Political Science, Comprising the Departments of History and Government, and Economics, 1910-11. Published in the Official Register of Harvard University. Vol. VI,I No. 23 (June 21, 1910), p. 58.

Economics 8b
Course Enrollment
1910-11

Economics 8b 2hf. Dr. E. E. Day. — Banking and Foreign Exchange.

Total 123: 1 Graduate, 26 Seniors, 55 Juniors, 27 Sophomores, 5 Freshmen, 9 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1910-1911, p. 49.

Economics 8b
Year-end Examination, 1910-11

  1. Carefully distinguish the clearing house certificate from the clearing house loan certificate. Describe the manner in which the loan certificate has been customarily issued.
    What is the primary function of the loan certificate? Explain Professor Sprague’s statement: “The result (from failure to equalize or pool reserves) has been to convert the clearing house loan certificate into an instrument which inevitably and immediately leads to the suspension of payments by the banks.”
    To what new uses was the loan certificate put in 1907? To what extent would you expect this practice of 1907 to be followed were another crisis to occur under our present banking laws?
  2. Describe the manner in which commercial banking in England arose from the business of the “new fashioned” goldsmiths.
  3. Contrast the banking systems prevailing in 1860 in New England and New York.
  4. In the English banking system, what are the functions of (1) the accepting house, (2) the bill-broker, (3) the discount house? What is the size and form of the English banking reserves? Are these reserves adequate? If so, why? If not, why not?
  5. Describe the following features of bank note issue in Canada: (1) number of issuing banks; (2) limitations upon issue; (3) security of notes; (4) current redemption of notes; (5) elasticity of issue.
  6. Describe the elasticity, from year to year, season to season, and during crises, of’ (1) gold coin, (2) bank notes, and (3) deposit currency, in the United States.
  7. Contrast Professor Sprague’s proposed central bank with the Reserve Association advocated by Senator Aldrich. Which, in your opinion, the better assures the banking reform needed in the United States? Why?

Source: Papers set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics, …, Landscape Architecture, Music in Harvard College. June 1911, p. 44. In Harvard University Archives, Examination papers, 1873-1915 (HUC 7000.25). Box 9. Examination Papers, 1910-11, p. 47.

Image Source: Edmund Ezra Day in Harvard Class Album 1915. Colorized by Economics in the Rear-view Mirror.