Six of eight courses listed in Political Economy were taught during the 1884-85 year at Harvard. This post provides the enrollment information as well as the June final examinations for all of those courses. Mid-year examinations are not included with one exception.
Note to self: only the mid-year examination for Taussig’s Political Economy 6 is included below, the others still need to be located.
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Political Economy 1. Profs. Dunbar and Laughlin. 3 hours per week.
Laughlin’s Mill’s Principles of Political Economy. — Lectures on the Financial Legislation of the United States
Total: 166: 18 Seniors, 75 Juniors, 61 Sophomores, 4 Law, 8 Others.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
POLITICAL ECONOMY 1.
[Final Examination, June 1885]
- If a farmer had the alternative of spending a sum of money either for manures, or for the services of useless servants, in which way would he give the greater employment to the laboring class by his expenditure? Explain your answer.
- (a) Discuss the causes affecting the efficiency of production; and (b) point out the relation of an increase in production to cost of labor.
- Is it strictly true that high wages do not make high prices? What would be the effect on real wages of a considerable increase of money in the community?
- Make it clear that, even if the state should take possession of all the land and charge no rent, bread would not be cheapened.
- What is the usual relation of a low cost of production in the manufacturing industry to prices? What is the relation of a low cost of production to wages in the same industry? From your two conclusions what inference would you draw as to the effect of high wages in the United States on the ability of Americans to compete with foreigners in a common market?
- Give an example illustrating the working of reciprocal demand and supply, and point out its relations to cost of production.
- What made the coinage act of 1834 necessary?
- On whom does a house-tax fall?
- Explain the refunding operations in 1881, and state what has since been done with the bonds in question.
- Give the reasons which obliged the banks to suspend specie payments in 1861. In doing so, point out the necessary relation between the items in their accounts which led them to this step.
- Describe the two great financial successes of the war period, explain the character of the obligations offered by the Treasury, and state why success was gained.
Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 2. Papers Set for Final Examinations in Rhetoric, Philosophy, Political Economy, History, Roman Law, Fine Arts, and Music in Harvard College. June, 1885. In bound volume: Examination Papers, 1883-86, pp. 9-10.
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Political Economy 2. Prof. Dunbar. 3 hours per week.
History of Economic Theory. — Selections from Leading Writers
Total: 21: 10 Seniors, 8 Juniors, 3 Others.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
POLITICAL ECONOMY 2.
[Final Examination, June 1885]
- Comment on the following:—
“Do the facts of history bear out the theory [of Ricardo]? If they do we shall find (1) that in any given area the amount of the produce of the land obtained in earlier times is greater in proportion to the number of laborers; (2) that of two countries, or two districts in the same country, if other things be equal, the one that is poorest in people is the one in which the average degree of personal wealth and comfort is the highest; (3) that the share that falls to the landlord increases, and that which falls to the laborer diminishes, as more land is brought under cultivation.” (Thompson’s Social Science, p. 93.)
- George says:—
“It is not necessary to the production [even] of things that cannot be used as subsistence, or cannot be immediately utilized, that there should have been a previous production of the wealth required for the maintenance of the laborers while the production is going on. It is only necessary that there should be, somewhere within the circle of exchange, a contemporaneous production of sufficient subsistence for the laborers, and a willingness to exchange this subsistence for the thing on which the labor is being bestowed.”
Is the necessity of previously produced subsistence avoided by the fact of “contemporaneous production,” etc.?
- George presents the current statement of the laws of distribution in this form:—
“Rent depends on the margin of cultivation, rising as it falls and falling as it rises.
“Wages depend upon the ratio between the number of laborers and the amount of capital devoted to their employment.
“Interest depends upon the equation between the supply of and demand for capital; or, as is stated of profits, upon wages (or the cost of labor), rising as wages fall, and falling as wages rise.
“In the current statement the laws of distribution have no common centre, no mutual relation; they are not correlating divisions of a whole, but measures of different qualities.”
Can you rewrite this “current statement” so as to present the correlation which Mr. George misses?
- Is there in rent any force of its own, enabling it to encroach upon wages and profits, or does it merely fill the space opened before it by other forces? What limit is there to this encroachment or expansion?
- Criticise the following as a statement of the Wages Fund theory:—
“The means of purchase and the motives acting upon the minds of employers jointly determine the effective demand for labor, as the means of purchase and the play of motives determine the effective demand for a commodity.” - Crocker says, p. 7:—
“Our wealthy classes, wishing to accumulate still greater wealth, sought to use a large portion of their control or power over labor in creating profitable investments for themselves….Comparatively little harm would have been done if the new investments had simply turned out to be unprofitable, and the old ones had continued to supply the rich their accustomed dividends, and to the poor their accustomed wages. The mischief has been that the new investments have, by competition, ruined for the time being the old ones; dividends and wages have stopped, and the income of all, both rich and poor, being cut down, their demands upon labor have been greatly diminished, and the laborer has been left in idleness and without the means of procuring the necessaries of life.”
Aside from all questions of fact,— what is the flaw in the above if the reasoning is bad, and what is the remedy for the evil if the reasoning is good? - What is Mr. Carey’s theory as to the tendency (1) to decline in the value of commodities, and (2) to rise in the value of land; and how is this reconciled with his principle that the law of value is universal, embracing everything, “whether land, labor, or their products”?
- “With every increase in the facility of reproduction, there is a decline in the value of all existing things of a similar kind, attended by a diminution in the price paid for their use. The charge for the use of the existing money tends, therefore, to decline as man acquires control over the great forces provided by the Creator for his service; as is shown by the gradual diminution of the rate of interest in every advancing country.”
What is the difficulty in this reasoning as to the rate of interest, and how would the reasoning apply in the case of a currency of inconvertible paper? - How far can apparent resulting harmonies in the general working of society (as g. in Carey’s and Bastiat’s law of distribution between capital and labor) be accepted as a test of the truth of an economic proposition?
Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 2. Papers Set for Final Examinations in Rhetoric, Philosophy, Political Economy, History, Roman Law, Fine Arts, and Music in Harvard College. June, 1885. In bound volume: Examination Papers, 1883-86, pp. 10-12.
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Political Economy 3. Prof. Laughlin. 2 hours per week. [Consent of instructor required]
Lectures and Discussion [of Practical Economic Questions]. Subjects: Money, Precious Metals, Bimetallism, American Shipping, History of Note-issues by Government and Banks. — One Thesis by each student on some practical question of the day, intended as an exercise in investigation
Total: 18: 10 Seniors, 7 Juniors, 1 Other.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
POLITICAL ECONOMY 3.
[Final Examination, June 1885]
- Explain the proper theory of a subsidiary coinage. How far was this followed by Congress in first establishing our coinage?
- Discuss the bearing which by its advocates bimetallism is supposed to have on the stability of a standard of payments. What connection has the theory of a Multiple Standard to this discussion?
- How far can you safely reason from comparative tables of prices as to changes in the value of gold or silver?
- Discuss the efficacy of a bimetallic league of states in regulating the value of silver relatively to that of gold.
- Explain the causes which led to the remarkable fall of silver in 1876.
- State the causes which, in your opinion, led to the growth of American shipping to 1856.
- How far do you regard it true that the decline in American shipping was due to the consequences arising from the use of steam and iron in ships engaged in the foreign trade?
- What measures, if any, would you propose in order to reestablish our shipping?
- What is meant by an “elastic currency”? Compare, in this respect, the notes of the National Banks with the legal tender notes of the United States.
- Give (a) the reasons for the general adoption of the features of the New York Banking Act of 1838; and (b) the reasons which actually led to the establishment of the National Banking System in 1864.
- Discuss carefully some measure for giving security to National Bank notes when United States bonds shall be no longer obtainable for that purpose.
Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 2. Papers Set for Final Examinations in Rhetoric, Philosophy, Political Economy, History, Roman Law, Fine Arts, and Music in Harvard College. June, 1885. In bound volume: Examination Papers, 1883-86, pp. 12-13.
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Political Economy 4. Prof. Dunbar. 3 hours per week.
Economic History of Europe and America since the Seven Years’ War. — Lectures
Total: 152: 61 Seniors, 43 Juniors, 37 Sophomores, 5 Freshmen, 2 Law, 4 Others.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
POLITICAL ECONOMY 4.
[Final Examination, June 1885]
Omit two questions
- Why was the repeal of the corn laws decisive as to the adoption of free trade by England?
- How did the French and Indian currencies tend to prevent the fall of gold after 1850 from being still heavier?
- How important a place among the causes of the decline of American shipping belongs to the civil war?
- The effects of the civil war on the system of landholding in the South and its probable ultimate effects on Southern industry.
- The steps by which the war determined the subsequent tariff policy of the United States.
- The causes of the suddenly increased importance of our trade in breadstuffs in the last ten years.
- Why did the payment of the French indemnity of 1871 seriously affect England, Austria and the United States?
- The real loss or gain of France and Germany respectively by the payment of the indemnity.
- What were the heavy demands for gold from 1871 to 1883, and why did they fail to produce serious financial disturbance?
- The difference in the development of city and of country banks respectively, in the United States and in England, and the inference to be drawn as to the future development of the banking systems.
- Why is a “triangular trade” between nations convenient and why is England the great centre for such trade?
- As the English government does not own nor tax the coal mines, why should fear of increasing cost of extracting coal lead Mr. Gladstone to favor an energetic reduction of the national debt.
Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 2. Papers Set for Final Examinations in Rhetoric, Philosophy, Political Economy, History, Roman Law, Fine Arts, and Music in Harvard College. June, 1885. In bound volume: Examination Papers, 1883-86, p. 13.
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Political Economy 5. Prof. Laughlin. 1 hour per week. [Consent of instructor required]
Economic Effects of Land Tenures in England, Ireland, France, and Germany
Omitted in 1884-85.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
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Political Economy 6. Dr. Taussig. 1 hour per week. [Consent of instructor required]
History of Tariff Legislation in the United States, with discussion of principles. — Lectures
Total: 40: 1 Graduate, 26 Seniors, 10 Juniors, 3 Others.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
POLITICAL ECONOMY 6
[Mid-Year Examination, 1885]
(Omit either question 3 or question 4.)
- Comment briefly on the following:—
“There is not a single great branch of domestic manufactures which had not been established in some form in this country long before a protective tariff had been or could have been imposed. The manufacture of iron is nearly as old as the history of every colony or territory in which there is any iron ore. The manufacture of woolens is as old as the country itself, and was more truly a domestic manufacture when our ancestors were clothed with homespun than now. The manufacture of cotton is almost as old as the production of the fibre on our territory.” - Compare the tariff act of 1816 with that of 1824, noting difference in (1) the general range of duties, (2) the circumstances under which they were passed, (3) the action taken in regard to them by the representatives of New England, the Middle States, and the South. It has been said that “the tariff of 1816 marks the beginning of protection in this country,” and that “the tariff of 1824 was our first tariff worthy of the name of protection.” Which of these statements is true, if either?
- Comment on the following:—
“No protective duty was ever levied on a single article, the home manufacture of which grew to large proportions under that duty, without the price to the consumer growing cheaper, the duty thus being a boon instead of a tax.”
“A duty on an imported article is invariably added to its price, at the cost of the buyer, and added also to the price of like articles made here.” - State carefully the argument for the protection of young industries and mention the conditions, if any, which might justify the application of such protection.
- Give a brief critical statement of the views expressed by Hamilton, Gallatin, Clay, and Webster on the protective controversy.
Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination papers in economics, 1882-1935. [Scrapbook of] Prof F. W. Taussig (HUC 7882).
POLITICAL ECONOMY 6.
[Final Examination, June 1885]
- State as nearly as you can the duties on the following articles from 1846 to 1884: pig-iron, steel-rails, wool, woollen cloths, silks, coffee, copper.
Take any one of the following articles: pig-iron, wool, woollen cloths, silks, copper; and say something as to the economic effect of the duties on that one between 1860 and 1884. - Give an account of the tariff act of 1864. Compare the tariff policy adopted in the United States after the close of the civil war, and with the policy of France after 1815.
- What has been the practice in our tariff acts since 1842 as regards the imposition of specific and ad valorem duties? Comment on the following: “It is an economic truth that the ad valorem system is the only equitable rule for assessing duties. With the whole power of a great government behind, there is no reason why the laws of the country should not be enforced. The outcry of undervaluation is simply a trick to blind the people, as it would be impossible to enact a law imposing duties of 80, 100, even 200 per cent. in the plain unvarnished form of ad valorem duties.”
- Comment briefly on two of the following:—
(1)”The fairest and most satisfactory test of the effect of the tariff on prices is to compare prices of the same article under high and low tariffs. The average gold price of pig-iron before 1860 was $28.50 per ton; in recent years it has been $33.70. The average is higher by $5.20 under a high tariff than during the period of low duties.”
(2) “Nothing can be more false than the claim of free trade advocates than that a duty is a tax that comes out of the farmers and artisans of this country. By far the greater part of the revenue collected on importations is the toll paid by people of other countries for the admission of their goods…I was assured by a score of manufacturers in England that the recent increase in the French tariff came out of their pockets, and not from the consumers in France; that they were compelled to sell their goods in France at the same price as before the increase of duty.”
(3) “A conclusive answer to the assertion that the protective policy secures high wages to the laborers of this country, is found in the fact that wages are higher in the United States—absolutely and in comparison with the old world rates—in those industries which do not have, or confessedly do not need, protection.” - Compare the grounds on which a policy of protection has been advocated in recent years with the grounds put forward in 1820-30, and give any reasons that may occur to you for changes in the arguments.
Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 2. Papers Set for Final Examinations in Rhetoric, Philosophy, Political Economy, History, Roman Law, Fine Arts, and Music in Harvard College. June, 1885. In bound volume: Examination Papers, 1883-86, pp. 14-15.
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Political Economy 7. Prof. Dunbar. 1 hour per week. [Consent of instructor required]
Comparison of the Financial Systems of France, England, Germany, and the United States
Omitted in 1884-85.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
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Political Economy 8. Prof. Dunbar. 1 hour per week. [Consent of instructor required]
History of Financial Legislation in the United States.
Total: 39: 1 Graduate, 28 Seniors, 7 Juniors, 3 Others.
Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1884-85, p. 86.
POLITICAL ECONOMY 8
[Final Examination, June 1885]
[Omit two questions.]
- State the circumstances which led to the adoption of the Independent Treasury and hard money as the policy of the Democratic party.
- How close an approach had been made to the issue of a government currency, prior to the Act of July 17, 1861?
- What has been the legislation since 1861 on the taxation of United States bonds,
(1) by national authority,
(2) by State authority,
and the reasons therefor? - The causes of the failure of the movements for resumption from 1865-70.
- The reasons for and against the claim of authority, under which Mr. Richardson increased the outstanding legal tender notes from $356,000,000 to $382,000,000.
- Trace the origin of the present three percents of the United States.
- Criticise the following extract from Mr Boutwell’s Finance Report of 1872:—
“As the circulation of a bank is a source of profit, and as the managers are usually disposed to oblige their patrons by loans and accommodations, it can never be wise to allow banks or parties who have pecuniary interests at stake to increase or diminish the volume of currency in the country at their pleasure. Nor do I find in the condition of things a law or rule on which we can safely rely. Upon these views I form the conclusion that the circulation of the banks should be fixed and limited, and that the power to change the volume of paper in circulation, within limits established by law, should remain in the Treasury Department….
“The problem is to find a way of increasing the currency for moving the crops and diminishing it at once when that work is done. This is a necessary work, and, inasmuch as it cannot be confided to the banks, where, but in the Treasury Department, can the power be reposed?”
Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 2. Papers Set for Final Examinations in Rhetoric, Philosophy, Political Economy, History, Roman Law, Fine Arts, and Music in Harvard College. June, 1885. In bound volume: Examination Papers, 1883-86, p. 15.
Images Source: Harvard Library, Hollis Images. Charles F. Dunbar (left) and James Laurence Laughlin (middle) and Frank W. Taussig (right).