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Chicago Economists

Chicago. James Buchanan’s Dissertation Outline, 1947

James McGill Buchanan, Jr.’s Ph.D. in economics at the University of Chicago was awarded in the summer quarter of 1948. The title of his dissertation was “Fiscal Equity in a Federal State”. From the Milton Friedman papers at the Hoover Institution we have the following transcription of the mimeographed dissertation outline submitted by Buchanan that was discussed in the economics department faculty meeting of October 24, 1947. The agenda of that faculty meeting along with Milton Friedman’s handwritten additions (in square brackets) are included at the end of this posting. The procedure for admission to Ph.D, candidacy is described in a 1949 memo written by Milton Friedman to members of the Department’s Ph.D. Thesis Committee.

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If you find this posting interesting, here is the complete list of “artifacts” from the history of economics I have assembled. You can subscribe to Economics in the Rear-View Mirror below. There is also an opportunity for comment following each posting….

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2. Present Procedure
[1949, University of Chicago, Economics]

a. Admission to candidacy. As I understand it, we have no very formalized procedure or requirements. Students typically discuss possible thesis topics with one or more faculty members, construct outlines of the projected thesis, ordinarily get the reaction of one or more faculty members to it, revise it accordingly, and then formally submit the thesis topic and outline to the Department for approval and admission to candidacy. The submitted outline is occasionally extremely detailed, occasionally very general, and is sometimes accompanied by a general statement of objective and purpose, sources of material for the thesis, etc.

[…]

Source: Undated memo (early 1949) written by Milton Friedman to members of the Committee on Ph.D. Thesis Outlines and Requirements from Hoover Institution Archives. Milton Friedman Papers, Box 79, Folder 5 “University of Chicago Minutes, Ph.D. Thesis Committee”.

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Dissertation Outline, James M. Buchanan, October 1947

J. M. Buchanan

EQUITY CONSIDERATIONS IN INTERGOVERNMENTAL FISCAL ADJUSTMENT

I. The Problem —

A. The federal political structure

1. Federalism in political theory. Varying degrees of dual sovereignty. The question of the finality of a federal structure. Is it a final point in political organization or merely a stage in an evolutionary process?

2. The historical development of federalism in the United States. Trends toward centralization and opposing tendencies. The expanding role of government on the whole. The expanding sphere of activity of the central as opposed to subordinate units. Projection of future trends.

3. The case for federalism as a permanent political structure in the United States. Its value as a means of a division of power, as a protection against a tyranny of the majority, etc.

4. Statement of viewpoint on federalism taken in this study.

B. The national economy —

1. The historical development of the expanding scope of the economy. The extension of the market, the trend toward economic centralization, in the sense that the nation has become the unit which defines the area of the allocation of resources.

2. The extent to which the economy is national — increasing specialization, increased resource mobility, etc.

C. Conflicts which arise in the financing of government due to the superimposition of a federated political structure on a national economy.

1. The heterogeneity of the subordinate units of government. Resource heterogeneity. Cultural, social differences. Income disparities leading to differentials in tax burdens and service standards. The basic fiscal inequity inherent in such a structure.

II.            A Theoretical Solution –

A. What is fiscal equity in such a structure?

1. Definition and limitation. For present purposes concept narrowed to that of “equal treatment for equals and unequal treatment for unequals”. Abstraction from any attempt to determine equity as between unequals since such a concept not needed for problems considered.

B. Application of the concept —

1. Necessity of benefit calculation for any determination of equity among individuals in separate subordinate governmental units. Difficulties in benefit calculation, aside from special cases. Assumption of per capita general expenditure as best measure of benefit.

2. Definition of the “fiscal residuum” or “net tax” – Net value of services available less net value of taxes paid. Considerations of “government” as the total of all layers in structure, federal, state, and local.

C. Arithmetical Examples –

Examples illustrating possible application of the equity criteria in hypothetical cases. Illustration that “equal treatment for equals and unequal treatment for unequals” will impose geographical financial neutrality upon the individual.

III.           A study of Comparative Fiscal Treatment of Similarly Situated Individuals in High Income and Low Income States –

A. Selection of states considered – one with high per capita income, one with low. (Tentatively have selected New York and Mississippi.)

B. Assumptions and abstractions –

1. Assumption of the State-Local fiscal problem as solved or non-existent. Application of criterion to 2-level structure only. State-local considered as one unit. Seek only interstate differentials, not intrastate here.

2. Assumption of money income as measure of economic position. Abstraction from non-pecuniary advantages of geographical location. Individuals considered in similar economic circumstances if money income, pproperty value, same. Physical property same. Family obligations same.

C. Selection of hypothetical individuals to be compared. Determination of income ranges to be covered.

D.            Expenditure pattern of individuals considered.

1. Proportion of income saved, spent at various income levels.

2. Distribution of expenditure at various income levels.

3. Property holdings at different income levels.

E. Determination of tax burdens of individuals considered.

1. Examination of tax structures of states in question.

2. Assumptions as to final incidence of state taxes. More than one set of assumptions can be made and results collocated.

3. Tax burden of hypothetical individuals in each income group in each state can be determined by application of assumptions as to incidence to expenditure patterns.

4. Indication that validity of the study does not depend upon validity of the assumptions as to incidence since no attempt is made to compare dissimilarly situated individuals. (Such a comparison will necessarily show in the computation, however, and for this reason the assumptions should be as realistic as possible.)

F. Determination of value of benefits of government service provided —

1. Necessity to use per capita general expenditure as best benefit measure.

2. Use of value input only not value output. Value output will differ as administrative efficiency of state varies.

G. Calculation of fiscal residua of similarly situated individuals considered —

1. Possibility of abstracting from federal taxes and expenditures since similarly situated individuals supposedly treated similarly by federal government.

H.            Calculation of the interstate differential in fiscal residua of the hypothetical similarly situated individuals considered.

IV.           Existing and proposed attempts at solution.

A. Vertical Integration

1. Examination of the various proposals made to integrate and unify the whole financial structure; plans for realignment of functions, central collection, local administration, complete centralization, etc.

B. Horizontal Integration and Coordination –

1. Readjustment of geographical boundaries, consolidation of non-efficient units. The “regionalism” approach.

C. The grant-in-aid as the adjusting device.

1. The existing structure of grants-in-aid in the United States – a short summary of the more prominent characteristics of the system.

2. Proposals for extension of the system –

a.            Further use of the conditional grant

(1)  Merits of the conditional grant

(2)  Drawbacks

(a)  Effects on budgetary independence of subordinate units.

(b) Central direction and interference.

b.            The concept of a “minimum standard”

(1)  Idea of the “national interest”

(2)  Attempts at defining “minimum standards”

(3)  Violation of equity criteria

(4)  Federal assumption of a function.

D.            Realistic Appraisal of Various Proposals from Standpoint of Political and Administrative Feasibility.

V.            Policy Implications of the Criterion of Equity Proposed in this study.

A. The practicability of direct application.

1. Difficulty of measurement

2. Political and administrative barriers.

B. Effect of the Acceptance of the Theoretical Validity of the Criterion upon Practical Policy.

1. Early elimination of matching requirements in grant-in-aid distribution.

2. Early abandonment of the concept of “minimum standards”.

3. Broadening of purpose for which grants are made.

4. Further extension of so-called “equalization” grants.

5. Elimination of the idea of “charity” in intergovernmental fiscal adjustment.

6. Greater federal reliance on the income tax as a source of revenue.

C. The proposals of the Canadian Royal Commission and Possible Application of Similar Proposals to the United States.

VI.           Possible Objections to the Equity Criterion Proposed and its Policy Implications.

A. Theoretical Objections

1. The central government as the adjusting unit.

2. The inclusion of fiscal treatment by government in the criteria for the optimum allocation of resources.

3. The nation as the economic unit.

B. Administrative Objections.

1. Violation of principle of fiscal responsibility.

VII.          Conclusion.

____________________________

 

Department of Economics
AGENDA
Friday, October 24, 1947, at 3:30 p.m. in SS424

I. Students’ Business

A. Admission to Candidacy for the Ph.D. Degree

James M. Buchanan

Subject: Equity Considerations in Intergovernmental Fiscal Adjustment.
Field: Government Finance
Committee: [Blough, chairman, Perloff, Knight]

Henry Woldon Hewetson

Subject: An Examination of the Distance Principle of Railway Freight rate making with references to Canadian Conditions.
Field: [Transportation]
Committee: [Sorrell, Koopmans, Friedman]

[Inserted:

Harriett D. Hudson.

Progressive Mine Workers of America
Committee: Douglas, ch; Nef; (illegible name) Lewis]

Norman Maurice Kaplan

Subject: Models for Socialist Economic Planning
Field:
Committee: [Marschak, ch.; ch. Harris; A. P. Lerner; Friedman

Raymond H. McEvoy

Subject: Effects of Federal Reserve Policies, 1929-36
Field: Money, Banking, and Monetary Policy
Committee: [Mints, Hamilton, Metzler]

Wallace E. Ogg

Subject: A Study of Maladjustment of Resources in Southern Iowa
Field: Agricultural Economics
Committee: [Johnson, Hardin (pol sci), Lewis]

B. Admission to candidacy for the Alternative Master’s Degree (without thesis.)

Raymond H. McEvoy

C. Admission to candidacy for the Regular Master’s Degree

Peter Senn

Subject: Federal subsidization of the Banks
Field:
Committee:

D. Petitions

Guy Black—for permission to substitute work in Mathematics for the regular requirement of a second foreign language.

Keith O. Campbell—for approval to take Political Science as one of the fields for the Ph.D. Degree.

Gershon Cooper—to substitute the following courses in math. for the German language requirement for the Ph.D. Degree: Mathematics 216, 220, and 228.

Bernard Gordon—to substitute a mathematical sequence of Calculus I and Calculus II in place of one of the language requirements for the Ph.D. Degree.

Dale A. Knight—to use Political science as one field for the Ph.D. Degree.

Chih-wei Lee—to take English as the second language.

[John K. Lewis]

II. Encyclopedia Britannica Economic Articles

III. Language requirements for Foreign students.

IV. Report of Master’s Degree Committee, Spring and Summer, 1947

V. New Business

 

Source: Hoover Institution Archives. Milton Friedman Papers. Box 79, Folder “79.1 University of Chicago Minutes Economics Department 1946-1949”.

Image Source: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Biography of James M. Buchanan.

 

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Chicago Courses Suggested Reading Syllabus

Chicago. Monetary Dynamics Seminar. Milton Friedman, 1952

Welcome to Economics in the Rear-View Mirror. If you find this posting interesting, here is the complete list of “artifacts” from the history of economics I have assembled thus far. You can subscribe to this blog below.  There is also an opportunity for comment following each posting….

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Transcribed from items in the Milton Friedman papers at the Hoover Institution today’s posting includes the bibliographic handout provided by Milton Friedman to the participants in his graduate seminar “Monetary Dynamics” that took place in the Spring Quarter of 1952 along with the official class list. We note that one of the graduate students enrolled in the seminar was Gary S. Becker. It is also interesting to note that “empirical studies” essentially meant “case studies” as of mid-twentieth century.

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The University of Chicago
Office of the Registrar

OFFICIAL CLASS LIST
SPRING QR. 1952

Instructor: FRIEDMAN MILTON
Department: ECON
Course number: 432

Student name:

Axilrod, Stephen H.
Becker, Gary S.
Deaver, John V.
Drayton, James
Fisher, Lawrence
Klein, John
Oort, Coenraad J.
Timberlake, Richard H. Jr.
Venetianer, Edmond

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Economics 432: Monetary Dynamics
Spring Quarter, 1952

  1. The central topic for this quarter will be monetary inflation. We hope to cover the theory of monetary inflation and empirical evidence on monetary inflations. The major issues in this area are, the process whereby changes in the stock of money produce their effect on prices and output or conversely, whereby changes in prices and output affect the stock of money; the role of the interest rate in inflation or, conversely, the effect of monetary changes on the interest rate; the role of exchange rates in monetary inflation as both cause and effect; the relative value of alternative simplified theories for predicting the course of inflationary movement; the role and problems of governmental monetary policy in inflationary periods; empirical regularities in monetary inflations and hyperinflations.
  2. We shall of course not be able to cover all these issues at all adequately; the interests of the members of the seminar will guide the selection made.
  3. There is a vast literature on these problems. The following bibliography, despite its length, is highly selective and is designed to suggest material available and to give leads to people working on particular topics rather than to be exhaustive. The three parts into which the essentially theoretical material is classified (1 to 3) are by no means mutually exclusive and many entries could with equal justification have been classified elsewhere; the sections are meant only to indicate major broad divisions and the order within the sections, the rough lines of theoretical development. Similarly, many of the items in Section 4, supposedly dealing with policy, could readily have been classified in the earlier sections; and many of the entries in section 5, labeled empirical studies, contain discussions of policy or of theory.

 

1. Classical analysis of inflation

A. Original sources

David Hume, “Of Money,” “Of Interest” in Essays, Moral, Political and Literary, part II (first published 1752).

Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776), Vol I. Bk. II, Chap 4; Bk 1, Ch xi, part of Pt. III (pp. 188-210 in Cannan edition); Bk. II, Ch. 11, esp. pp. 283-87 of Cannan edition.

Henry Thornton, An Essay on Paper Credit (1802), esp pp. 254-8, 281, 296-7, and 335-9 of reprint.

David Ricardo, Principles of Political Economy, (3rd ed. London (1821), Ch. 21; The Works and Correspondence, edited by P. Sraffa, Volume III, passim. (Cambridge 1951).

Nassau Senior, On the Value of Money (1840)

________________, Three Lectures on the Cost of Obtaining Money (1930)

John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, (1848), Bk. III, Ch. 8, 9, 23.

J. E. Cairnes, “Essays Toward a Solution of the Gold Question,” (written, 1858 to 1860) in Essays in Political Economy, Theoretical and Applied, (London, 1873) pp. 1 to 165.

B. Secondary sources

T. E. Gregory, Introduction to Tooke and Newmarch (London (1928), esp. pp. 22-31.

F. A. Hayek, “A Note on the Development of the Doctrine of ‘Forced Savings’”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1932, pp. 123-33.

J. W. Angell, The Theory of International Prices – history, criticism, and restatement (Cambridge, Mass., 1926)

Jacob Viner, Studies in the Theory of International Trade, (New York, 1937), Ch. III, IV, V.

Lloyd W. Mints, History of Banking Theory (Chicago, 1945)

2. Neo-classical

A. Swedish school

Knut Wicksell, Interest and Prices, esp introduction, by Bertil Ohlin, Preface, (London 1936) and Ch. 5-9.

_______________, Lectures, Vol. 2, Ch. IV; pp. 127-222 (London 1935)

Gunner Myrdal, Monetary Equilibrium, London (1939).

E. Lundberg, Studies in the Theory of Economic Expansion, (Stockholm, 1937)

E. Lindahl, Studies in the Theory of Money and Credit (London, 1939)

A. P. Lerner, “Swedish Stepping Stones in Economic Theory,” Canadian Journal of Economics, November 1940.

Brinley Thomas, Monetary Policy and Crisis, Ch. 3 and 4. (1936)

J. Marschak, “Wicksell’s Two Interest Rates,” Social Research, Nov. 1941.

B. Austrian school

L. von Mises, The Theory of Money and Credit (1934) Eng. Translation.

F. A. Hayek, Prices and Production (2nd edition (1935)).

C. Cambridge school

Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics, pp. 593-5; Money, Credit, and Commerce, pp. 38-50 (1923)

__________________, Official Papers, Ch. II, esp. 38-41, 45-6, 123-32, 157-60. (1926)

D. H. Robertson, Essays in Monetary Theory, esp. Ch. II, XII (1940)

__________________, Banking Policy and the Price Level (3rd ed, 1950)

__________________, “Notes on the Theory of Money,” Readings in Monetary Theory, (Blakiston, 1951), pp. 159-61.

A. C. Pigou, Industrial Fluctuations (1927)

J. M. Keynes, Monetary Reform (London, 1923) especially Ch. III.

F. Langston, The Trade Cycle.

D. Other

J. M. Keynes, A Treatise on Money, esp Vol I, Ch. 13, pp. 293-302, Vol. II, Ch. 25, 30, 32, 33 (1930).

R. G. Hawtrey, The Art of Central Banking (1933), esp. pp. 116-207, 366-71.

__________________, Capital Employment, (1937) Ch. 4-6.

Irving Fisher, Elementary Principles of Economics, Ch. IX (N.Y. 1912) (revised)

__________________, The Purchasing Power of Money, (1926) Ch. 8.

__________________, The Rate of Interest, Ch. 8, 14, 16.

Bertrand Nogaro, Modern Monetary Systems (London, 1927)

M. Albert Aftalion, Monnaie, Prix et Change (Paris, 1927)

Joseph Schumpeter, Business Cycles, Vol II, Ch. 8 (1939)

MacMillan Report, Royal Commission on Finance and Industry, Cmd 3897 (1931), Ch. 11, pp. 92-160.

E. Critiques

H. Ellis, German Monetary Theory (1934) Ch. 8, 9, 19.

R. J. Saulnier, Contemporary Monetary Theory (1938)

Arthur Marget, The Theory of Prices (1938, 1942) Vol 1, Ch. 2, 12-16, Vol 2, Ch. 3.

R. S. Sayers, Modern Banking, Ch. VI (1939, rev. ed.)

G. Haberler, Prosperity and Depression, (1941, 3rd ed.) Part I.

3. Keynes of General Theory

A. General

J. M. Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money. (London, 1936)

R. F. Kahn, “The Relation of Home Investment to the Multiplier,” Economic Journal, 1931.

Joan Robinson, Essays in the Theory of Employment (1938)

________________, “The Economics of Hyper-Inflation,” (Economic Journal, Sept. 1938), “War Time Inflation,” both in Collected Economic Papers (New York, 1951).

M. Kalecki, Essays on the Theory of Economic Fluctuations (1939)

J. R. Hicks, Value and Capital (2nd ed. 1946) Parts 3 and 4.

Alvin H. Hansen, Fiscal Policy and Full Employment, (1941).

________________, Monetary Theory and Fiscal Policy (1949) Chapter. 7, 8, 9.

________________, Economic Policy and Full Employment (1947).

L. Klein, The Keynesian Revolution (1947)

T. Wilson, Fluctuations in Income and Employment (3rd ed. 1948)

W. Fellner, A Treatise on War Inflation (1942)

A. G. Hart, Money, Debt and Economic Activity, (1948) Ch. 10.

A. P. Lerner, The Economics of Control, Ch. 21-25 (1944)

Walter A. Salant, “The Inflationary Gap, Meaning and Significance for Policy Making,” American Economic Review (June, 1942) pp. 308-14.

Milton Friedman, “Discussion of the Inflationary Gap,” American Economic Review (June, 1942) pp. 314-20.

Arthur Smithies, “The Behavior of Money National Income under Inflationary Conditions,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1942.

T. C. Koopmans, “The Dynamics of Inflation,” Review of Economics and Statistics, 1942, pp. 53-65 (comment by A. Smithies and reply, pp. 189-90.)

Franklin Holzman, “Income Determination in Open Inflation,” Review of Economics and Statistics, 1950.

Clark Warburton, “Monetary Expansion and the Inflationary Gap,” American Economic Review, 1944.

Lloyd A. Metzler, “Wealth, Saving, and the Rate of Interest,” Journal of Political Economy, April, 1951.

B. Wage-Price Spiral

Ralph Turvey, “Period Analysis and Inflation,” Economica, 1949.

________________, “Some Aspects of the Theory of Inflation in a Closed Economy,” Economic Journal, Sept. 1951.

J. Dusenberry, “The Mechanics of Inflation,” Review of Economics and Statistics, 1950.

W. A. Morton, “Trade Unionism, Full Employment, and Inflation” American Economic Review, March 1950.

_______________, “Keynesianism and Inflation,” Journal of Political Economy, June 1951.

M. W. Reder, “Theoretical Problems of a National Wage Policy,” Canadian Journal of Economics (Feb. 1948)

_____________, “On Money Wages,” Industrial Relations Research Association conference, 1950.

A. Rees, “Postwar Wage Determination in the Basic Steel Industry,” American Economic Review (June 1951).

4. Government Policy in Inflationary Periods

David Ricardo, “Funding System,” in The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo, ed by Piero Sraffa (Cambridge, 1951), Vol. IV, esp pp. 185-200; also Vol. III, passim.

A. C. Pigou, The Political Economy of War (revised ed., 1940)

A. G. Hart, E. D. Allen, and collaborators, Paying for Defense (Philadelphia, 1941)

M. Kalecki, “General Rationing,” Bulletin of Oxford Institute of Statistics, January 1941.

G. L. Bach, “Rearmament, Recovery, and Monetary Policy,” American Economic Review, 1941

W. A. Wallis, “How to Ration Consumer Goods and Control Their Prices,” American Economic Review, 1942.

Carl Shoup, Milton Friedman, and Ruth Mack, Taxing to Prevent Inflation (New York, 1943).

Milton Friedman, “The Spendings Tax as a Wartime Fiscal Measure,” American Economic Review, 1943.

J. J. Polak, “On the Theory of Price Control,” Review of Economics and Statistics, 1945.

L. Seltzer, “Is a Rise in Interest Rates Desirable or Inevitable,” American Economic Review, December, 1945.

R. I. Robinson, “Monetary Aspects of Public Debt Policy,” Postwar Economic Studies #3, Board of Governors of Federal Reserve System.

H. C. Wallich, “The Changing Significance of the Interest Rate,” American Economic Review, December 1946.

R. G. Hawtrey, “Monetary Aspects of the Economic Situation,” American Economic Review, March 1948.

Ten Economists on Inflation, Review of Economics and Statistics, 1948.

L. V. Chandler, “Federal Reserve Policy and Federal Debt,” American Economic Review, March 1949.

R. S. Sayers, “Central Banking in Light of Recent Experience,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1949.

H. C. Murphy, The National Debt in War and Transition (1950)?E. A. Goldenweiser, American Monetary Policy (1951)

L. W. Mints, Monetary Policy for a Competitive Society. (1950)

Subcommittee on Monetary, Credit and Fiscal Policies (“Douglas subcommittee”), Hearings, 81st Congress, 1st Session and Report, 81st Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Document 129.

“The Controversy over Monetary Policy,” (Seymour Harris, Lester Chandler, Milton Friedman, Alvin Hansen, Abba Lerner, and James Tobin), Review of Economics and Statistics, August 1951.

J. K. Galbraith, The Theory of Price Control (1952)

Joint Committee on the Economic Report, Monetary Policy and the Management of the Public Debt, Joint Committee Print, 82nd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, 1952) in two volumes.

5. Empirical Studies

W. C. Mitchell, History of the Greenbacks (Chicago, 1903)

_______________, Gold, Prices, and Wages under the Greenback Standard (Berkeley, 1908)

N. S. Silberling, “Financial and Monetary Policy of Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars,” Quarterly Journal of Economics (1924), pp. 214-33, 397-439.

C. Bresciani-Turroni, The Economics of Inflation.

E. L. Dulles, The French Franc (New York, 1929)

W. De Bordes, The Austrian Crown (London, 1924)

S. S. Katzenellenbaum Russian Currency and Banking, 1914-24 (London, 1925)

James H. Rogers, The Process of Inflation in France, 1914-27 (New York, 1929)

Frank D. Graham, Exchange, Prices, and Production in Hyper-inflation: Germany, 1920-23 (Princeton, 1930)

Seymour Harris, The Assignats (1930)

R. A. Lester, Monetary Experiments (1939)

E. J. Hamilton, “Prices and Wages at Paris under John Law’s System,” Quarterly Journal of Economics (November, 1936).

______________, “Prices and Wages in Southern France under John Law’s System,” Economic History, a supplement of the Economic Journal (February, 1937)

Bertrand Nogaro, “Hungary’s Monetary Crisis,” American Economic Review (Sept. 1948).

Henry W. Spiegel, “A Century of Prices in Brazil,” Review of Economics and Statistics, 1948

A. J. Brown, “Inflation and the Flight from Cash,” Yorkshire Bulletin of Economic and Social Research, Vol. 1 (Sept., 1949)

L. V. Chandler, Inflation in the United States, 1940-49. (1951)

Milton Friedman, “Price, Income, and Monetary Changes during Three Wartime Periods,” [American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, May 1952, pp. 612-625]

 

Source: Hoover Institution Archives. Milton Friedman Papers, Box 78, Folder 4 (University of Chicago, Econ 432).

 

Categories
Chicago Suggested Reading Syllabus

Chicago. Theory and Measurement of Demand. Henry Schultz, 1934

The undated reading list and bibliography for Henry Schultz’s advanced course “Theory and Measurement of Demand” transcribed below, included in Milton Friedman’s papers at the Hoover Institution Archives, are almost certainly from the Autumn quarter, 1934. This was the academic year that Friedman worked as Henry Schultz’s research assistant at the University of Chicago and audited the course.

______________________________

Friedman audited the Schultz course, Theory and Measurement of Demand

According to the draft of his Civil Service application Milton Friedman worked as personal assistant to Henry Schultz October 1934-August 1935 at a yearly salary of $1600. In his list of courses on a separate page, Friedman writes that he “visited”, i.e. did not take for credit, a course in the Theory of Demand given by Henry Schultz during the academic year 1934-35.

 

Source: Milton Friedman Papers, Hoover Institution Archives, Box 5, Folder 4 (Employment records, Civil Service Commission).

______________________________

Friedman describes his work for Schultz

From a carbon-copy, presumably an attachment to the same Civil Service application in Box 5, Folder 4, Friedman writes:

“I lived in Chicago, Ill. from September, 1934 to August, 1935 while employed by the University of Chicago.

My educational training and experience gained while working with Professor Schultz this past year are most relevant to the position for which I am applying. I have aided Prof. Schultz on the theoretical questions underlying his forthcoming book on “The Theory and Measurement of Demand”, a subject intimately connected with consumption. In this connection I have had to survey the literature on demand and consumption. In addition to the theoretical work I have been in charge of related statistical studies and was largely responsible for the planning and direction of a statistical study of the demand for meats in the United States, on which study three statistical assistants were employed. In the course of the study I wrote several memoranda analyzing and interpreting the data and results. The results of the analysis are being published by Prof. Schultz in…[next page missing].”

Source: Milton Friedman Papers, Hoover Institution Archives, Box 5, Folder 11(Student years).

______________________________

[Course Description] 

  1. The Theory and Measurement of Demand.—A course covering such topics as the pure theory of demand; demand and utility in the theory of exchange; static and dynamic demand functions; different notions of elasticity of demand; various methods of deriving demand functions from family budget data and from time series of consumption and prices; etc. Prerequisite: Economics 301, a reading knowledge of French, and consent of the instructor. C.—2Cs., Autumn, 9:00, SCHULTZ.

 

Source: University of Chicago. Announcements: The College and The Divisons for the Sessions of 1934-35, pp. 286-7.

______________________________

REFERENCES FOR ECONOMICS 405

Theory and Measurement of Demand
by
Henry Schultz
University of Chicago

____

I. General Equilibrium

Bowley, A. L. Mathematical Groundwork of Economics
Divisia, Francois Économique Rationelle
Evans, G. C. Mathematical Introduction to Economics
Fisher, Irving Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Price,–in Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences (9-10) pp. 1-125.
Marshall, Alfred Principles of Economics
Pareto, Vilfredo +Manuel d’Économie Politique (especially Chap. III and Mathematical Appendix, pp. 539-594.)

+Cours d’Économie Politique (especially first 73 pages)

+Économie Mathématique, in Encyclopédie des sciences Mathématique, Tome I, Vol. 4, Fascicule 4, pp. 591-640.
Pietri-Tonelli, Alfonso Traité d’Économie Politique
Walras, Leon +Éléments d’Économie Politique
Zawadzki, Wl. Les Mathématiques Appliquées à l’Économie Politique

 

 

II. Utility Theory

A. Philosophical and Historical Background

Bentham, Jeremy Principles of Morals and Legislation
Edgeworth, F. Y. Mathematical Psychics
Halevy, Elie La Formation du Radicalisme Philosophique (French or English edition)
Jevons, W. Stanley Theory of Political Economy
Mitchell, Wesley C. “Bentham and the Felicific Calculus”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. XXXIII, No. 2, June, 1918.
Stephen, Leslie The Utilitarians

 

B. Analytical and Statistical

Allen, R. G. D. “The Foundations of a Mathematical Theory of Exchange”, Economica, May, 1932.

+”The Nature of Indifference Curves”, The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, Feb., 1934, pp. 110-121.

+”A Comparison between Different Definitions of Complementary and Competitive Goods”, Economtrica, Vol. II, No. 2, April, 1934, pp. 168-176.
Allen, R.G.D., and Hicks, J.R. “A reconsideration of the Theory of Value”, Economica, Part I, Feb., 1934, pp. 52-76. Part II, May, 1934, pp. 196-219.
Evans, G. C. “The Role of Hypothesis in Economic Theory”, Science, Vol. 75, No. 1943, March 25, 1932, pp. 321-324.
Johnson, W.E. “The Pure Theory of Utility Curves”, Economic Journal, Vol. XXIII, No. 92, Dec., 1913, pp. 483-513.
Lange, Oscar “The Determinateness of the Utility Function”, The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 218-226.
Schultz, Henry Review of Evans’ Mathematical Introduction in Journal of the American Statistical Association, Vol. XXVI, No. 176, Dec., 1931, pp. 484-91.

+”Interrelations of Demand”, Journal of Political Economy, XLI, 1933, pp. 468-512.
Thurstone, L. L. “The Indifference Function”, The Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. II, No. 2, May, 1931, pp. 139-67.
Zotoff, A. W. “Notes on the Mathematical Theory of Production”, Economic Journal, Vol. XXXIII, 1923, pp. 115-121.

 

C. Applications

Allen, R. G. D. “On the Marginal Utility of Money and Its Applications”, Economica, May, 1933.
Fisher, Irving “A Statistical Method for Measuring ‘Marginal Utility’ and Testing the Justice of a Progressive Income Tax”, in Economic Essays Contributed in Honor of John Bates Clark.
Frisch, Ragnar “Sur un Problème d’Économie Pure”, Norsk Matamatisk Forenings Skriften, 1926, Series 1, No. 16.

New Methods of Measuring Marginal Utility
Schultz, Henry “Frisch on the Measurement of Utility”, Journal of Political Economy, XLI, Feb., 1933, pp. 95-117.

+ Of special importance

 

________________________________

 

[Handwritten: Milton Friedman]

 

REFERENCES FOR ECONOMICS 405
Bibliography on Demand

__

Henry Schultz
University of Chicago

____

Derivation of Demand Curves
I. From Price [and] Quantity Data

A. The Moore Method

Moore, H.L. Economic Cycles: Their Law and Cause. New York, 1914.

Forecasting Yield and Price of Cotton. New York, 1917.

“Empirical Laws of Demand and Supply and the Flexibility of Prices”, PSQ, XXXIV, 1919.

“Elasticity of Demand and Flexibility of Prices”, JASA, XVIII, 1922.

“A Moving Equilibrium of Demand and Supply”, QJE, XXXIX, 1925.

“Partial Elasticity of Demand”, QJE, XL, 1926.

“A Theory of Economic Oscillations”, QJE, XLI, 1926.

Synthetic Economics, New York, 1929.
Schultz, Henry Statistical Laws of Demand and Supply, with Special Application to Sugar. Chicago, 1928.

Meaning of Statistical Demand Curves. English original of Der Sinn der Statistischen Nachfragekurven, Veroeffentlichungen der Frankfurter Gesellschaft fuer Konjunkturforschung, Heft 10. Bonn, 1930.

“The Shifting Demand for Selected Agricultural Commodities, 1875-1929”, Journal of Farm Economics, XIV, 1932, 201-27.

“A Comparison of Elasticities of Demand Obtained by Different Methods”, Econometrica, I, 1933, 274-308.

“Interrelations of Demand”, JPE, XLI, 1933, 468-512.
Lenoir, Marcel Études sur la Formation et le Mouvement des Prix. Paris, 1913.
Ezekiel, Mordecai “Statistical Analysis of the Laws of Price”, QJE, 1928.

“A Statistical Examination of Lamb Prices”, JPE, April, 1927.

 

B. The Leontief Method

Leontief, Wassily “Ein Versuch zur Statistischen Analyse von Angebot und Nachfrage”, Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, Band XXX, Heft 1, 1929, pp. 1-53.
Schultz, Henry Meaning of Statistical Demand Curves, Appendix II, 99-118.
Frisch, Ragnar “Pitfalls in the Statistical Construction of Demand and Supply Curves”, Veroeffentlichungen der Frankfurter Gesellschaft fuer Konjunkturforschung, Neue Folge, Heft 5, Leipzig, 1933.
Leontief, Wassily “Pitfalls in the Construction of Demand and Supply Curves: A Reply”, QJE, XLVIII, 1934, 352-63.
Frisch, Ragnar “More Pitfalls in Demand and Supply Analysis: A Reply”, QJE, XLVIII, 1934, 749-55.
Leontief, Wassily “More Pitfalls in Demand and Supply Analysis: A Final Word”, QJE, XLVIII, 1934, 755-59.
Marschak, J. “More Pitfalls in Demand and Supply Analysis: Some Comments”, QJE, XLVIII, 1934, 759-67.

 

C. The (second) Pigou Method

Pigou, A.C. “The Statistical Derivation of Demand Curves”, EJ, XL, 1930, 344-400; reprinted in A.C. Pigou and D.H. Robertson, Economic Essays and Addresses. London, 1931.
Ferger, Wirth F. “Pigou’s Method of Deriving Demand Curves”, EJ, XLII, 1932, 17-26.
Cassels, J.M. “A Critical Consideration of Professor Pigou’s Method for Deriving Demand Curves”, EJ, XLIII, 1933, 574-87.
Allen, R.G.D. “A Critical Examination of Professor Pigou’s Method of Deriving Demand Elasticity”, Econometrica, II, July, 1934, 249-58.

 

D. Miscellaneous

Working, Holbrook “The Statistical Determination of Demand Curves”, QJE, XXXIX, 1925.
Working, E.J. “What do Statistical Demand Curves Show?” QJE, XLI, 1927, 212-35.
Gilboy, Elizabeth W. “Demand Curves in Theory and Practice”, QJE, XLV, 1930.

“The Leontief and Schultz Methods of Deriving ‘Demand’ Curves”, QJE, XLV, 1931, 218-61.
“Studies in Demand: Milk and Butter”, QJE, XLVII, 1932, 671-97.
Ferger, Wirth F. “The Static and Dynamic in Statistical Demand Curves”, QJE, XLVII, 1932, 36-62.

 

II. From Family Budget Data

A. The (first) Pigou Method

Pigou, A.C. “A Method of Determining Numerical Values of Elasticity of Demand”, EJ, XX, 1910, 636-40.

 

B. The Frisch Method

Frisch, Ragnar “Sur un Problème d’Économie Pure”, Norsk Matamatisk Forenings Skriften, 1926, Series 1, No. 16.

New Methods of Measuring Marginal Utility
Schultz, Henry “Frisch on the Measurement of Utility”, JPE, XLI, 1933, 95-117.

 

C. The Marschak Method

Marschak, Jakob Elastizitaet der Nachfrage, Beitraege zur Oekonomischen Theorie, 2, Tuebingen, 1931.
Frisch, Ragnar “Discussion of Marschak’s Method”, Revue d’Économie Politique, XLVI, 1932, 14-28.

 

D. The Roy Method

Roy, René La demande dans ses rapports avec la Répartition des Revenue”, Metron, VIII, 1930, 101-53.

“Les Lois de la Demande”, Revue d’Économie Politique, 1931, 1190-1218.

 

E. Miscellaneous

Gilboy, Elizabeth W. “Demand Curves by Personal Estimate”, QJE, 1932.
Waugh, Albert E. “Elasticity of Demand from Budget Studies”, QJE, 1932.
Bean, L. H. “The Farmer’s Response to Price”, Journal of Farm Economics, 1929.

“Measuring the Effect of Supplies on Prices of Farm Products”, Journal of Farm Economics, April, 1933.

 

N.B.

The references, with but one exception, are confined to works in English or French. For additional references see Schultz, Henry: “A Comparison…”, Econometrica, I, 1933, 274-308.

The abbreviations refer to the following periodicals:

EJ Economic Journal
JASA Journal of the American Statistical Association
JPE Journal of Political Economy
PSQ Political Science Quarterly
QJE Quarterly Journal of Economics

 

Source: The above transcription is based on the copy  in Milton Friedman Papers, Hoover Institution Archives, Box 5, Folder 12 (Student years). Another copy can be found in the George Stigler Papers, University of Chicago Archives, Addenda, Box 33, Folder “1935 University of Chicago Class Notes”. The copy in the Stigler notes is almost identical to the Friedman copy (with some hand-corrected titles and additions for apparent unintended omissions). Stigler’s notes to the course along with class hand-outs are found in the same folder.

Image Source: The only photo of Henry Schultz that I have ever come across is the one found to accompany Harold Hotelling’s paper and Paul Douglas’ paper in Econometrica (1939) honoring Schultz who died November 26, 1938 in a tragic automobile accident that also took the lives of his wife and two daughters.

Categories
Chicago Exam Questions

Chicago. Economic Theory Exams, A.M. and Ph.D. Summer 1949

The economic theory examination committee at the University of Chicago in the Summer Quarter of 1949  for the A.M. and Ph.D. degrees was made up of F. H. Knight (chair), O. H. Brownlee, M. Friedman, and  L. A. Metzler.  49 students took Part I of the exam (33 were Ph.D. students, 16 were A.M. students, equally divided between economics majors and minors). Part II of the examination was taken by 14 Ph.D. students (no A.M. students).  It does not appear that Knight participated in the grading of Part II however.

Two minor notes: Students were assigned numbers, presumably to assure anonymity with respect to their examiners, but the “unlucky” number 13 was not assigned to anyone. The “grade sheet” for the exams is labelled the “Report on Written Examination” which is similar to the use of the word “report” by the registrar’s office on official University of Chicago transcripts (for this usage, see the Patinkin transcripts).

__________________________________________

ECONOMIC THEORY, Part I
[August 2, 1949]

Written examination for the Ph.D. and A. M. Degrees, Summer Quarter, 1949

Ph.D. candidates: Time: 3½ hours. Answer all questions

A.M. Major candidates: Time: 3 hours. Answer question #2 and two others.

A.M. Minor candidates: Time: 2 hours. Answer question #2 and one other.

 

  1. (a) Discuss and evaluate alternative theories of “Profits” as a distributive share.
    (b) It is frequently said that in a private enterprise economy the producers’ motive is to maximize “profits”. Discuss the meaning of “profits” in this connection in relation to your answer to (a).
  1. Write briefly on the meaning of the capital concept and its importance in interpreting economic growth or change. Relate your discussion to the case of a Crusoe economy and state whether (and if so how) the principles are different for the competitive pecuniary social order.
  1. With reference to federal legislation assuring to every resident in the U.S.A. medical care by the physician and hospital of his choice, free and with no special taxation: Appraise the proposal as to effects upon general welfare, assuming that the alternative is the sale of medical insurance, not subsidized, but with the same distribution of personal income effected by cash “relief”.
  1. Briefly discuss the familiar diagram of a family of short-run cost curves for a firm, with an “envelope” as a long-run curve. State the main “cases” for price-equilibrium under monopoly and under “perfect competition.” Explain why the point of tangency with both curves descending may be such an equilibrium-supply, and particularly why it locates the minimum cost for the corresponding output.
  1. Briefly outline or list the main features of the Ricardian theories of value and of distribution and contrast each point with a “sound” modern view.”

__________________________________________

ECONOMIC THEORY, Part II
[August 4, 1949]

Written examination for the Ph.D. Degree, Summer Quarter, 1949.

Time: 2½ hours.

  1. Assume an economic system in which real expenditure upon goods and services (real consumption, investment, government expense) is a function of real income and the interest-rate; show that the set of values which satisfy the conditions for equilibrium in the commodity market (make real savings and investment equal) need not contain the “full-employment” income level; i.e., that level of real income which would be produced when the quantity of labor supplied equals the quantity demanded, both the labor supply and labor demand being functions of the real wage.
    Evaluate the assumptions of this system on terms of their realism, citing the relevant evidence; and indicate modifications which would result in the inclusion of the “full employment” level of income as one of the values satisfying the condition for equilibrium in the commodity market.
  1. Under the so-called “security-reserve proposal” member banks would be required to keep a supplementary reserve against deposits over and above the reserves they are now required to keep in the form of a deposit with a Federal Reserve Bank. This supplementary reserve could be in the form of government securities.a. What is the main purpose, or purposes, of this proposal?
    b. What effect would it have on the ability of the banks to expand credit, and how?
    c. In the light of present economic conditions, what can you say about the urgency of such a “reform”?
  1. It is a common view today that an equal reduction of both taxes and governmental expenditure would contribute to an increase of the national income or counteract a tendency to depression. State your position and discuss carefully.

Source: Hoover Institution Archives. Milton Friedman Papers, Box 76, Folder 10 “University of Chicago Econ. 300B”.

Categories
Bibliography Columbia Courses

Columbia. Fiscal policy. Depression deficits and war finance. Shoup, 1941

Carl S. Shoup (New York Times obituary) taught a course at Columbia in the business school with the title “The balancing of government budgets” that was listed with economics department course offerings as “Economics b114”. One finds this course listed in the annual Bulletin of the Faculty of Political Science beginning in the Spring session of 1938 and then every year through 1943 with the exception of 1940.

In this posting you will find his selected bibliographies on deficit financing in periods of depression and the special problem of financing defense and war.

______________________________

[Course Description]

Economics b114—The balancing of governmental budgets. 3 points Spring Session. Professor Shoup.

Tu. and Th. at 9. 415 Business.

An analysis of the factors governing the choice between normal recurring revenue, such as taxes, and extraordinary revenue such as loans, devaluation profits, etc. Particular attention is paid to the relations of public finance to money and banking in these problems.

Source: Division of History, Economics, Public Law, and Social Science. Courses offered by the Faculty of Political Science for the Winter and Spring Sessions 1940-41. Columbia University, Bulletin of Information, 40th Series, No. 29 (June 29, 1940), p. 38.

______________________________

In this posting I have assembled three selected bibliographies two of which are undated and all three are without attribution to Shoup or any university identification. Two of the bibliographies are identified as belonging to a course “Economics b114”. These bibliographies are found in two folders (“Student years” and “University of Wisconsin, Econ b114”) filed far apart (boxes 5 and 75, respectively) in the Milton Friedman papers at the Hoover Institution.

Milton Friedman taught at Columbia up through 1939-40 followed by a year at University of Wisconsin in 1940-41. None of the courses that Friedman taught at Wisconsin for which I found material in the his papers had a prefix “b” before the course number and it seems pretty unlikely (one would really need to consult the course catalogues for the University of Wisconsin to be sure…I have not) that the course numbering between the Columbia business school and the Wisconsin economics department would coincide.

I have concluded that the part of the Shoup reading list dealing with defense and war related finance was filed by a Hoover archivist with Friedman’s course materials at Wisconsin (incorrectly) because the date on that selected bibliography coincided with Friedman’s Wisconsin years (and perhaps it was actually found with materials from his business cycle class, Economics 176, at Wisconsin).

________________________

 

Economics b114
Selected Bibliography on Deficit Financing in Periods of Depression

Chase, Stewart, Idle Money, Idle Men

Clark, J. M., Economics of Planning Public Works

Clark, J. M., “An Appraisal of the Workability of Compensatory Devices,” American Economic Review, March, 1939 Supplement (Proceedings), pp. 194-208

Clark, J. M., “Effects of Public Spending on Capital Formation”, in National Industrial Conference Board, Capital Formation and its Elements, 1939.

Colm, G. and Lehmann, F., Economic Consequences of Recent American Tax Policy, Supplement I to Social Research, 1938, 108 p.

Colm, G. and Lehmann, F., “Public Spending and Recovery in the United States,” Social Research, May, 1936, Vol. III, 129-66.

Dennison, H. S. and others, Toward Full Employment, 1938, 297 p.

Eccles, Marriner, Economic Balance and a Balanced Budget (Weissman, editor)

Galbraith, J. K., The Economic Effects of the Federal Public Works Expenditures, 1933-1938, 131 p. 1940.

Galbraith, J. K., “Fiscal Policy and the Employment-Investment Controversy”, Harvard Bus. Rev., Autumn, 1939.

Gayer, Arthur, “Fiscal Policies,” American Economic Review, March, 1938 Supplement (Proceedings), 90-112. (Reprints on reserve at Business Library).

Gayer, A. D. and Rostow, W. W., How Money Works, Public Affairs Pamphlets No. 45, 1940, 30 p.

Gill, C., Wasted Manpower: The Challenge of Unemployment, 1939, 312 p.

Graham, B. L., “Storage and Stability – A Plan for Monetizing the Commodity Surplus”, in Roberts, Geo., A Forum on Finance, 1940.

Haley, B. F., “The Federal Budget: Economic Consequences of Deficit Financing,” Am. Eco. Rev., Feb., 1941, 67-87.

Hansen, A. H., Full Recovery or Stagnation? 1938, pp. 267-329.

Hicks, U. K., “Balancing the Budget” (Ch. XVII) and “Taxation and the Trade Cycle” (Ch. XVIII), in The Finance of British Government, 1920-1936. (1938)

Jaszi, G., “The Budgetary Experience of Great Britain in the Great Depression,” in Public Policy: A Yearbook (Harvard), 1940.

Kahn, R. F., “The Relation of Home Investment to Unemployment,” Economic Journal June, 1931.

Keynes, J. M., The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money

Keynes, J. M., The Means to Prosperity

Keynes, J. M., NY. Times, Editorial page, June 10, 1934 (p. 1 of editorial section) and July 7, 1934.

Lerner, A. P., “Some Swedish Stepping Stones in Economic Theory,” Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Nov., 1940, espec. p. 574-80.

Lutz, H. L., The Business Man’s Stake in Government Finance, Stanford Univ. 1939, espec. pp. 16-20, 23-44, 45-66.

Lutz, H. L., “The Failure of the Spending Policy,” N. Y. Sun, Jan. 6, 1940

Meyers, A. L., “Government Borrowing and Creation of National Income,” Chap. IV, in Modern Economic Problems. 1939.

Myers, M. G., Monetary Proposals for Social Reform, 1940, 191 p.

Myrdal, Gunnar, “Fiscal Policies in the Business Cycle,” A.E.R., 1939 Proceedings, 183-93.

Pigou, A. C., “Inflation, Deflation and Reflation,” Ch. IV in Economics in Practice, 1936.

Round Table on “The Workability of Compensatory Devices,” A.E.R. 1939 Proceedings, 224-29.

Samuelson, P. A., “Theory of Pump-Priming Reexamined,” Am. Eco. Rev., Sept., 1940, 492-506.

Seltzer, L. H., “Direct versus Fiscal and Institutional Factors,” Am. Eco. Rev. Feb., 1941, 99-107.

Slichter, Sumner, “Is America Finished?” N.Y. Sun, Jan. 6, 1940

Slichter, Sumner, “Profits and Prosperity,” Atlantic Monthly, Nov., 1938.

Smith, D. T., Deficits and Depression

Smith, D. T., “Is Deficit Spending Practical?” Harvard Bus. Rev., Autumn, 1939.

Smith, D. T., “An Analysis of Changes in Federal Finance, July 1930-1938 Rev. Econ. Statistics, Nov., 1938.

Smith, D. T., Review of Haley’s Paper, ibid., 88-98.

T.N.E.C., Hearings, Part 9: Hansen, Currie, etc.

Twentieth Century Fund, Debts and Recovery, 1938, 366 p.

U. S. Treasury, Borrower,” Fortune, January, 1939.

University of Chicago, Round Tables. “The Economics of Pump-Priming.” May 1, 1938, “Purchasing Power and Prosperity,” July 31, 1938.

Vanguard Press, An Economic Program for American Democracy.

Williams, John H., “Deficit Spending”, Am. Eco. Rev. Feb. 1941, 52-66.

 

Source: Milton Friedman papers, Hoover Institution Archives. Box 5, Folder 12 “Student years”. [Note above my reasons to believe this folder also has material not from Friedman’s “student years”.]

______________________________

Economics b114
Bibliography of Recent Materials Dealing with the Financing of Defense and War
February 5, 1941

American Council of Public Affairs, Economic Mobilization

Bowen, I., and Worswick, G. D. N., “The Controls and War Finance,” Oxford Econ. Papers, Sept., 1940.

Brown, F. H., and others, War Finance in Canada, 1940.

Clarke, R. W. B., The Economic Effort of War, London, 1940.

Connely, E.F., “Financing our Preparedness Program,” Banker’s Mag., Aug., 1940.

*Durbin, E.F.M., How to Pay for the War, London, 1939.

Editorial Research Reports, Methods of Financing War, June 3, 1940.

George, E.B., “Prices and Profits in a Defense Economy,” Dun’s Review, Nov., 1940.

*Greer, Guy, “Arming and Paying for It,” Harpers, Nov., 1940.

Hardy, C.O., “War and Capital Formation,” in Capital Formation and Its Elements, National Industrial Conference Board, 1939, pp. 134-50.

*Hardy, C.O., “Wartime Control of Prices,” 1940.

*Hart, A.G., Economic Policy for Rearmament, U. of Chicago Public Policy Pamphlet No. 33.

Kazekevitch, V.D., “The War and American Finance,” Science and Society, Spring, 1940.

*Keynes, J.M., How to Pay for the War, New York, 1940.

Morgan, S., “Deficit Financing in Germany,” in Roberts (editor), Forum on Finance, New York, 1939, pp. 3-22.

*Moulton, Harold G., Fundamental Issues in National Defense, Brookings, Jan. 13, 1941.

National Industrial Conference Board, Consumption, Savings, and Defense Financing, and Fiscal Possibilities for National Defense, Supplements to Economic Record, 1940.

*New Republic symposium: How to Pay for Defense, July 29, 1940 (Groves, Keynes, Chase, Cooke, Soule).

Pigou, A. C., “War Finance and Inflation,” Economic Journal, Dec., 1940.

Radice, E.A., “Consumption, Savings, and War Finance,” Oxford Economic Papers, Sept., 1940.

Riches, E.J., “Deferred Pay: the Keynes Plan,” Inter. Labor Review, June, 1940.

Robbins, L., “How Britain Will Finance the War,” Foreign Affairs, April, 1940.

Staudinger, H., and Lehmann, F., “Germany’s Economic Mobilization for War,” National Industrial Conference Board Economic Record, July 24, 1940.

*U.S. Government, Budget for Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1942.

______________________________

The next page immediately follows the previous but it lacks a date and the formatting of the bibliography deviates from the previous two. Being alphabetically ordered and going from “Annals” to “Williams” with perhaps a quarter of empty page below, it is clearly a separate list. None of the titles are the same with the previous two lists, so I have presumed this is a likely update from the middle of the second session 1941.

______________________________

Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science: Billions for Defense, March, 1941, 1-215.

Bach, G.L., “Rearmament, Recovery and Monetary Policy”, American Economic Review, March, 1941, 27-41.

Eccles, M. S., “Economic Preparedness for Defense and Post Defense Problems, Federal Reserve Bulletin, Jan., 1941.

Gilbert, R. V., and others, “Exploring the Factors Involved in Reemployment of Labor and Capital”, Savings Bank Journal, Dec., 1940.

Hansen, A. H., “Defense Financing and Inflation Potentialities,” Review of Economic Statistics, Feb., 1941.

Hearings, Public Debt Act of 1941: Committee on Ways and Means, Jan. 29 and 30, 1941, 106pp: Subcommittee of Committee on Finance, Feb. 12, 1941 47p.

Musgrave, R. A., “Inflationary Dangers of the Public Debt and the Tax System”, Taxes, Feb., 1941

Paul, R. E., and others, “Exploring the Financing of National Defense and Its Economic Consequences,” Savings Bank Journal, Oct., 1940

Plumptre, A. F. W., “An Approach to War Finance,” Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Feb., 1941, 1-12.

Secretary of the Treasury, Report for Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1940.

Stewart, Maxwell, “How Shall We Pay for Defense?” Public Affairs Pamphlet, No. 52, 1941.

Williams, John H. “Economic and Monetary Aspects of the Defense Problem,” Federal Reserve Bulletin, Feb. 1941

 

Source: Milton Friedman papers, Hoover Institution Archives. Box 75, Folder 2 “University of Wisconsin, Econ b114”. [Note above my reasons to believe this folder contains a reading list from the Shoup course at Columbia University.]

______________________________

Research Tip: Shoup Collection at Yokohama National University Library

“The Shoup Collection consists of 3,000 volumes of books, 100 titles of periodicals and enormous amount of documents held by an American economist Dr. Carl Sumner Shoup (1902-2000) who is known to have issued the report of Japanese tax system called “Shoup Mission.” In particular, the documents of his lecture notes, working memoranda and letters including those from Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander for Allied Forces, and from Shigeru Yoshida, former Prime Minister, are precious inheritances that can only be found at this library.”

______________________________

Image Source: The Columbia Spectator Archive. March 8, 1967.

 

 

 

Categories
Bibliography Columbia Courses Economists

Columbia. Economic History Course taught by Simkhovitch. Attended by Friedman, 1933.

Of six graduate courses taken for credit at Columbia University by Milton Friedman, one was taught by the Professor of Economic History, Vladimir Gregorievitch Simkhovitch — Economics 119. According to Friedman’s own listing of his coursework in economics found in his papers at the Hoover Institution Archives, he took Simkhovitch’s economic history course during the winter semester of the academic year 1933-34.

Simkhovitch was a multifaceted character and Universalgelehrter which can be loosely translated as an academic “utility infielder”. Because of his relative (or even absolute) obscurity now in the history of economics, here a bit of biographical information to chew on.

V. G. Simkhovitch was born in Russia in 1874, received his doctorate from Halle-Wittenberg (Germany) in 1898, and emigrated to the U.S. after completing graduate work where he began a fellowship at Cornell. He was hired by Columbia University in 1904 to teach economic history. Besides his economic history courses, Simkhovitch also regularly lectured on the subjects of socialist economics and Marxism until retiring from Columbia in 1942. Of considerably more note than himself was his wife Mary Melina Kingsbury, whom he met in Berlin during their student years. They married in New York City in 1899 with Mary Simkhovitch going on to become a prominent housing reform and neighborhood activist. Greenwich House, still in existence, was a model settlement house that she founded. Husband and wife were prominent enough, mostly thanks to her, to have their 50th wedding anniversary reported in the New York Times (January 6, 1949). Objects from Vladimir Simkhovitch’s art collections were reported in his obituary (New York Times, December 10, 1959) to have been displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Pierrpont Morgan Library in New York as well as museums in Boston, Cleveland and Philadelphia. It is not difficult to find objects once owned by him in art auction house listings today.

__________________________

Eli Ginzberg’s recollections of Simkhovitch

In his brief memoir essay “Economics at Columbia: Recollections of the early 1930s” [The American Economist, vol. 34, No. 2, (Fall, 1990), 14-19], Simkhovitch does not come off well, certainly not personally.

“The hard core of the old department in addition to Seligman, Seager and Moore included Vladimir G. Simkhovitch who offered courses on socialism and economic history. Russian by birth and German by education, Simkhovitch, even with the perspective of time is not easy to characterize and even harder to evaluate. A collector of Chinese art and a grower of delphiniums in Perry, Maine, he was recognized as an expert in both fields. Most students, the bright as well as the dull, considered his lectures somewhat tedious distraction from serious work on contemporary economics; they had little interest in his exhaustion of the soil explanation for the decline of Rome or his Edward Bernstein-modified critique of Karl Marx. But a few of us recognized V.G.’s insightfulness and over looked his failings, defects which included a proneness for character defamation and vindictiveness as well as immature behavior toward female students.” p. 14.

“If the relations between the Graduate Economics Department and the School of Business were close and for the most part friendly, this was not the case with respect to the Graduate Economic Department’s attitude to the economists who taught in the undergraduate department headed by Rexford G. Tugwell. Tugwell fancied himself to be an expert in agricultural economics which may have brought him into conflict with Simkhovitch who devoted much of his time and energy to creating and maintaining feuds. The tension may have been nothing more than snobbery run riot. Tugwell did not teach any course in the Graduate Department of Economics. But I can personally attest to the fact that Tugwell was sensitive about collegial relations.” p. 17

Ahem…“immature behavior toward female students”!  Certainly not the first, nor regrettably the last…but definitely one of them.  It was good for Eli Ginzberg to have put that in the historical record. 

__________________________

[Course Description]

Economics 119—Economic history. 3 points Winter Session. Professor V. G. SIMKHOVITCH.
Tu., 2:10-3 in 401 Fayerweather and 4:10-5 in 302 Fayerweather.

A general survey of the chief phases of the economic development of classical antiquity, of the Middle Ages, and of modern times, as well as of historical approaches.

Source: History, Economics, Public Law, and Social Science: Courses Offered by the Faculty of Political Science for Winter and Spring Sessions, 1933-34. Columbia University, Bulletin of Information, 33rd Series, No. 26 (March 25, 1933)

__________________________

ECONOMIC HISTORY

V. Simkhovitch “Approaches to History”

I Political Science Quarterly, December 1929 S
II         [ditto]                             December, 1930 S
III       [ditto]                              September, 1932 R

Towards an Understanding of Jesus R
Rome’s Fall Reconsidered S
Hay and History S
Marxism v. Socialism Chapter on the Economic Interpretation of History

 

R         Roth Clausing The Roman Colonate 5-62

R         F. de Coulanges The Origin of Property in Land 1-73; 149-52

S          Buecher         Industrial Evolution 83-151

R         Edward Meyer Entwicklungsgeschichte des Altertums in Kleine Schriften Vol. 81-160

R         H. Bradley      Enclosures in England 11-45; 72; 85; 105-7

S         Seligman The Economic Interpretation of History 1-24; 146-186

R         Schoenberg “Zunftswesen im Mittelalter” Jahrbucher fur Nationaloekonomie und Statistik 1867

R         Renard           Guilds in the Middle Ages 1-26; 32-67; 73 -115

R         Brentano       History and Development of the Guilds

R         Cunningham Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Paragraphs 61, 72-7, 84, 103, 122, 128, 149-9

S          Ashley Introduction to English Economic Theory and History, Volume I pp. 1-113

R         Toynbee Industrial Revolution Chapters 7 and 8

R         Toutain          The Economic Life of the Ancient World Chapters 5-6

R  Read                      S   Study carefully

 

Source: Milton Friedman Papers. Hoover Institution Archives. Box 5, Folder 12, “Student years”.

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Image Source: Standing Royal Figure. Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Helena Simkhovitch in memory of her father, Vladimir G. Simkhovitch.

 

 

 

 

Categories
Chicago Courses

Chicago. Price Theory. Econ 300 A&B. Friedman Readings ca 1947

 

 

When compared to the list of Milton Friedman’s reading assignments for Economics 300 A&B for 1948, we note that the following handwritten list of readings taken from the student notes of Norman M. Kaplan who attended both 300A and 300B during the Winter Quarter 1947 do not include the 1947 items found in the 1948 list:

Pigou, A. C., “Economic Progress in a Stable Environment,” Economica, 1947, pp. 180-90.

*Dennison, S. R., “The Problem of Bigness,” Cambridge Journal, Nov. 1947.

This leads me to conclude that we indeed have the assigned Winter Quarter readings for Friedman’s second iteration of Economics 300A and his first iteration of Economics 300B. There is much more in Kaplan’s student notes, but this is enough for one posting.

______________________________

[undated, handwritten copy by Norman M. Kaplan]

Friedman’s readings 300 A&B

 

F. H. Knight, “Social Econ. Organization”; “The Price System & the Econ. Process” (in The Economic Organization, pp. 1-37)

 

Marshall

Bk III, ch. 2, 3, 4,5
Bk V, ch. 1,2,3,4,5,12, Appendix H
Bk IV, ch. 1, 2, 3
Bk V, ch 6
Bk VI, ch. 1-5           (ch. 1,2 done)

 

H. Schultz, Meaning of Statistical Demand Curves, pp. 1-10
E.J. Working, “What do Statistical ‘Demand Curves’ Show?”

 

Knight, Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit, ch 3
Hicks, J. R., Value and Capital, Part I (pp 11-37)
W. A. Wallis & M. Friedman, “Empirical Derivation of Indifference Functions” (in Lange, Studies in Math. Econ. & Econometrics, U of C Press)

 

A. L. Myers, Elements of Modern Economics, ch 5, 7, 8, 9
J. Robinson, Econ. of Imperfect Competition, ch 2 (in 209 notes)
J. M. Clark, Econ. of Overhead Costs, ch 9
J. Viner, “Cost Curves and Supply Curves”
E. Chamberlin, Theory of Monopolistic Competition, ch 3, secs. 1, 4, 5, 6; ch 5
R. F. Harrod, “Doctrines of Imperfect Competition”, QJE, May 1934, esp. sec. 1, pp. 442-61

 

J. B. Clark, Distr. of Wealth, Preface, ch 1, 7, 8, 11, 12 (in 209 notes), 13, 23

 

J. S. Mill, Prin of Pol Econ, Book II, ch 14
Hicks, Theory of Wages, ch 1-6 (in 209 notes)
Smith, Wealth of Nations, Bk I, ch 10

 

Friedman and Kuznets, Income from Independent Professional Practice,

Preface, pp. v to x,
ch 3, sec 3, pp. 81-95,
ch 4, sect 2, pp. 118-137,
app to ch. 4, sec 1 & 3, pp 142-151, 155-61

 

F.H. Knight, “Interest” in Ethics of Competition
Keynes, GT [General Theory], ch 11-14

 

Cassell, Fundamental Thoughts in Econ, ch. 1, 2,3
[____], The Theory of Social Economy, ch 4

 

Hicks, “Keynes & the Classics”, Econometrica, Apr 1937, pp. 147-159
Modigliani, “Liquidity Preference & the Theory of Interest & Money,” Econometrica, Jan 1944, esp. Part I, sec. 1 through 9, sec 11 through 17, part II, sec 21
Pigou, “Classical Stationary State,” Econ Journal, Dec 1943, pp. 343-51

 

Source: Kaplan, Norman Maurice. Papers, Box 1, Folder 8, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library

Image Source: The Mont Pelerin Society webpage “About MPS”.

 

Categories
Chicago Courses Syllabus

Chicago. Price Theory. Economics 300 A&B. Friedman. 1948

 

 

In the previous posting I provided transcriptions of Milton Friedman’s handwritten record of classes for the first time he offered the first quarter of a two-quarter sequence in price theory together with a handout and examination questions. Unfortunately I was unable to find a comparable record of classes for the second quarter of the sequence, Economics 300B for the Winter Quarter 1947. Below we have a draft of assigned and recommended readings for the following year. This can be compared to the readings for the price theory course Friedman taught at Columbia in 1939-40.

Interesting to note is the double appearance of Keynesian economics, something one might have not expected in a price theory course, once for the determination of interest rates (after dealing with the theory of wages) and later (apparently) to illustrate general equilibrium.

The October 1951 version of the Reading Assignments for Economics 300A and B is printed as an appendix to J. Daniel Hammond’s “The development of post-war Chicago price theory” in The Elgar Companion to Chicago School Economics, edited by Ross  B. Emmett, pp. 7-24. It is nearly identical to the handwritten draft of reading assignments I have transcribed here from 1948.  This Hammond article offers much context and is very much worth consulting.

______________________________

September, 1948

Economics 300 A&B
Reading Assignments by M. Friedman

(Notes:

  1. It is assumed students are familiar with material equivalent to that contained in George Stigler, Theory of Price, or Kenneth Boulding, Economic Analysis.
  2. Readings marked with asterisk (*) are recommended, not required.)

Knight, F. H., The Economic Organization, esp. pp. 1-37.
Keynes, J. N., The Scope and Method of Political Economy, ch. I and II, pp. 1-83.

 

Marshall, Alfred, Principles of Economics, Bk III, ch 2, 3, 4; Bk V, ch 1,2.
Schultz, Henry, The Meaning of Statistical Demand Curves, pp. 1-10.
Working, E. J. “What do Statistical ‘Demand Curves’ Show?”
Knight, F. H. Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit, ch 3.
*Lange, O., “On the Determinateness of the Utility Function”, Review of Economic Studies, Vol I (1933-34), pp. 218 ff.
*Allen, R.G.D., “The Nature of Indifference Curves,” Ibid, pp 110 ff.
Hicks, J. R., Value and Capital, Part I (pp 11-52).
*Wallis, W. A., and Friedman, Milton, “The Empirical Derivation of Indifference Functions”, in Lange et al, Studies in Mathematical Economics and Econometrics
*Friedman, Milton and Savage, L. J., “The Utility Analysis of Choices Involving Risk,” Journal of Political Economy LVI (August 1948) pp. 279-304.

 

Marshall, Book V, ch 3, 4, 5, 12, Appendix H.
Meyers, A. L. Elements of Modern Economics, ch 5, 7, 8, 9.
Robinson, Joan, Economics of Imperfect Competition, ch 2.
Clark, J. M., The Economics of Overhead Costs, ch 9
Viner, Jacob, “Cost Curves and Supply Curves”, Zeitschrift fuer Nationaloekonomie, Bd III (Sept, 1931), pp 23-46.
Chamberlin, Edward, The Theory of Monopolistic Competition, ch 3, sec. 1, 4, 5, 6; ch 5.
Harrod, R. F. “Doctrines of Imperfect Competition”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, May 1934, sec. 1, pp. 442-61.

 

*Triffin, Robert, Monopolistic Competition and General Equilibrium Theory, esp. Part II.
*Robinson, E. A. G., The Structure of Competitive Industry.
*___________________, Monopoly.
*Plant, Arnold, “The Economic Theory Concerning Patents for Inventions,” Economica, Feb, 1934.
*Dennison, S. R., “The Problem of Bigness,” Cambridge Journal, Nov. 1947.

 

Marshall, Book IV, ch 1, 2, 3; Bk V, ch 6.
Clark, J. B., The Distribution of Wealth, Preface, ch 1, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 23.
Mill, John Stuart, Principles of Political Economy, Book II, ch 14.
Hicks, J. R., The Theory of Wages, ch 1-6.
Smith, Adam, The Wealth of Nations, Bk I, ch 10.
Marshall, Bk VI, ch 1-5.
Friedman, Milton, and Kuznets, Simon, Income from Independent Professional Practice, Preface, pp. v to x; ch 3, Sec 3, pp. 81-95, ch 4, Sect 2, pp. 118-137, App, Sec 1 & 3, pp 142-151, 155-61.
Knight, F. H. “Interest” in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, also in Ethics of Competition.
Keynes, J. M. The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, ch 11-14.

 

Cassell, Gustav, Fundamental Thoughts in Economics, ch. 1, 2,3.
_________________, The Theory of Social Economy, ch 4.
J. R. Hicks, “Mr. Keynes and the ‘Classics’; A Suggested Interpretation”, Econometrica, vol 5, April 1937, pp. 147-159.
Franco Modigliani, “Liquidity Preference and the Theory of Interest and Money,” Econometrica, vol 12, No. 1 (Jan 1944) esp. Part I, sec. 1 through 9, sec 11 through 17, Part II, sec 21.
A. C. Pigou, “The Classical Stationary State,” Economic Journal, vol 53, December, 1943, pp. 343-51.
____________, “Economic Progress in a Stable Environment,” Economica, 1947, pp. 180-90.

 

Source: Hoover Institution Archive, Milton Friedman Papers, Box 77, Folder 1 “University of Chicago, Economics 300 A & B”.

 

Categories
Chicago Courses Exam Questions Syllabus

Chicago. Price Theory. Econ 300A, Friedman. 1946.

The first cohort of students to receive their graduate price theory training from Milton Friedman during the autumn quarter of 1946 at the University of Chicago (Economics 300A ) included a future Nobel prize winner (James Buchanan), a future labor economist and Chicago/Princeton professor (Albert Rees), a future textbook author (Richard Leftwich, whose text incidentally was the text used in the early concentration freshman economics course I took at Yale in the Fall semester of 1969), and Army Air Corps Silver-Star recipient and the future head of C.I.A. Soviet economics research (Rush V. Greenslade).

Interestingly enough, Milton Friedman is listed as a member of the faculty in the Announcement for the Sessions of 1946-1947 but the courses 300A, B were not yet in included in the May 15, 1946 Announcements. The readings and basic structure of the course were slightly modified from the course he offered at Columbia in 1939-40.

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[Course Description]

300A,B. Price Theory. A systematic study of the pricing of final products and factors of production under essentially stationary conditions. Covers both perfect competition and such imperfectly competitive conditions as monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly. 300A deals primarily with the pricing of final products; 300B, with the pricing of factors of production. Prereq: Econ 209 or equiv. and Econ 213 or equiv or consent of instructor.

300A. Aut: MWF 9:30; Win: MWF 10:30; Friedman.

300B. Win: MWF 9:30; Spr: MWF 9:30; Friedman.

 

Source:   University of Chicago, Announcements. Vol. XLVII, No. 4 (May 15, 1947), The College and the Divisions. Sessions of 1947-1948, p. 224.

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Econ 300 A. Autumn Quarter [1946]
Record of Meetings

[Handwritten notes by Milton Friedman]

Wed Oct 2 Qualifying exam.
Fri Oct 4 a) Marshall a la Memorials, pp. 47, 86.
b) Defn of the economic problem[,] Economics
c) Distnctn betw. positive & normative
Mon Oct 7 Knight[‘]s fcns of econ organization
Wed Oct 9 [ditto] completed
Fri Oct 11 Reln betw wants & activities
Mon Oct 14 a) Initial discussion of d. c.
Wed Oct 16 [ditto] completed
b) [Initial discussn ] of s. c.
Fri Oct 18 No meeting (to be held later
Mon Oct 21 Equil of d & s.
Wed Oct 23 Elast. of Dem
Fri Oct 25 Elast completed & assumptns ind. demand
Mon Oct 28 Ass. and dem. c. completed; stat. d.c.
Wed Oct 30 Complete statistical demand curves
Fri Nov 1 Stochastic dem. curve. d.c. of ind cons. throu m. u.
Mon Nov 4 Eqn of ind cons; math & graph. demontratn
Wed Nov 6 Dervatn of d & eng curves
Fri Nov 8 Diff with utility theory
Mon Nov 11 Indiff curve theory
Wed Nov 13 [ditto]
Fri Nov 15 Examination
Mon Nov 18 Discussion of exam: Income vs. substitution effects
Wed Nov 20 Diff with indifference theory; dem curve for prod of an indiv prod.
Fri Nov 22 Dem curve for prod of ind prod; Econ of Ind firm
Mon Nov 25 Relat of cost curves of ind foirm to supply curve of industry
Wed Nov 27 (extra meeting to make up for Oct. 18)
Reading period
Mon Dec 9 Diff kinds of monopolistic conditions
Wed Dec 11
Fri Dec 13
Mon Dec 16
Wed Dec 18 examination
Fri Dec 20 examination

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Qualifying Examination, Economics 300A
Autumn Quarter, 1946

1. Comment briefly on the following two sentences, taken from newspaper stories:

a. “Demand went up and therefore price went up.”

b. “Price went up and therefore demand declined.”

 

2. Indicate which of the following statements are true (T) and which false (F):

[T] If a one per cent increase in price will cause more than a one per cent reduction in amount demanded, the demand for the commodity is elastic.

[F] Cost of production affects price only through its effect on the rate of production.

[F] If production of a commodity is completely monopolized, and if the monopolist takes full advantage of his position, no changes in the cost of production will have any effect upon price.

[F] A fixed tax (say, a license tax of $10,000) would operate to increase the price at which a monopolist would make the largest net return (or largest net earnings).

[blank] An individual firm will undertake to equalize marginal revenue and marginal cost.

[F] An excise tax is likely to increase the price of a competitively produced commodity by the full amount of the tax.

[T] If price exceeds the competitive producer’s average expense it will therefore be advantageous for him to increase his rate of production.

[T] A monopoly will never operate at a price at which the demand of its product is inelastic.

 

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[undated copy of a class handout, ca. 1946-47]

An arithmetical example of the effects of changes in tastes and the distribution of income on the distribution of commodities.

1. Descriptive data:

a. Population. There are three classes in the community—rich, middle-class, and poor. Their numbers are fixed throughout the example, but their incomes vary. The numbers and original family incomes are:

Rich: 1,000 families, $10,000 income

Middle-class: 10,000 families, $3,000 income

Poor: 1,000 families, $1,000 income

b. Commodities. There are two commodities: housing; and all other, which will be treated as a single commodity.

c. Tastes. In the original position the tastes of all income classes are identical. The tastes are described by the following schedules of marginal utilities, which, it will be noticed, follow the Bernoulli hypothesis. (It will be observed also that the analysis is independent of the measurability of utility. Marginal utilities are used only for simplicity of exposition. If the student will triple the marginal utilities for one income class and carry through the analysis, he will reach the same answers, assuming he does not make arithmetical mistakes.)

 

Housing

Other

Quantity

 Marginal Utility Quantity

Marginal Utility

1

 1.00 1

1.00

2

 0.50 2

0.50

3

 0.33 3

0.33

4

 0.25 4

0.25

5

 0.20 5

0.20

Additional values can be found for either schedule from the formula, marginal utility = 1/quantity.

 

2. The Original Distribution of Goods.

a. Each family will seek maximum utility, and this entails buying housing and other commodities in such quantities that

marginal utility of housing = marginal utility of other
  price of housing                                 price of other

In addition each family is faced by the budget limitation that the amount spent on housing plus the amount spent on other equal income.

b. We can construct a demand curve for (say) housing by (say) the poor, using arithmetical procedures.

i. First divide the marginal utilities of housing and other by their unit prices. Let these prices be $2 per unit and $1 per unit, respectively. We secure schedules:

Housing

Other

Quantity

 Marginal Utility
Per Dollar		 Quantity

Marginal Utility
Per Dollar

1

 0.500 1

1.00

2

 0.250 2

0.50

3

 0.167 3

0.33

4

 0.125 4

0.25

5

 0.100 5

0.20

 

ii. Then find the combinations such that the marginal utility per dollar is equal. For example, 1 housing unit and 2 other units; 2 housing units and 4 other units. Only one of these many combinations meets our budget limitation, that the poor family spend $1,000. Continuing the table or the logic, the family will buy 250 housing units if the prices are as given.

iii. Carry this procedure through for all possible prices of housing and other, for each income class.

iv. Add the demand schedules so secured, compare with the given supplies, read off prices, and then the quantities received by each type of family.

v. Since steps iii and iv will require several years, it is more economical to take a course in sub-freshman algebra and proceed as follows:

c. Our two conditions of proportionality of marginal utilities to prices and the budget limitation can be written as

1/(q1p1) = 1/(q2p2)

q1p1 + q2p2 = R,

where q1 is the quantity of housing, p1 its price, the corresponding symbols with subscript 2 refer to other, and R is income.

We then proceed deftly as follows:

i. The demand curve for housing by a family is the quantity that will be purchased at various prices, so we wish to find how q1 varies with p1. If we substitute the proportionality-of-marginal-utilities equation into the budget equation, we secure

q1p1 + q1p1 = R,

or q1=R/(2p1).

By symmetry the same demand curve holds for other, using subscript 2.

ii. We now add up the demand curves of all families. The aggregate demand of the 1,000 rich families is

1,000 x 10,000/(2p1) = 5,000,000/p1

that of the middle class,

10,000 x 3,000/(2p1) = 15,000,000/p1

and that of the poor, starving families is

1,000 x 1,000/(2p1) = 500,000/p1.

iii. The fixed supply of both housing other is 205,000 units. The price is set where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, i.e.,

205,000 = 20,500,000/ p1

so the price of housing (and of other) will be $100.

iv. And now by going back to demand curves, in i above, we can find the quantity each family secures of each commodity.

d. The final answers are:

i. The rich family secures $10,000/(2x$100) = 50 units of housing and 50 units of other.

ii. The middle class family secures $3,000/(2x$100) = 15 units of housing and 15 units of other.

iii. The poor family secures $1,000/(2x$100) = 5 units of housing and 5 units of other.

3. After the War: Larger Money Incomes and a More Equal Distribution of these Incomes.

a. Let us assume that after a highly successful war, this community now has the following income structure:

Rich: 1,000 families, $18,000 income

Middle-class: 10,000 families, $6,000 income

Poor: 1,000 families, $4,000 income

Thus the aggregate money income of the community has doubled, but is now more equally distributed by any reasonable measure.

b. We proceed to the solution exactly as before. Indeed nothing has changed but the incomes of individual families so we may use the same demand equations.

c. The final answers are:

i. The rich family secures 45 units of housing and 15 units of other.

ii. The middle-class family secures 15 units of housing and 15 units of other.

iii. The poor family secures 10 units of housing and 10 units of other.

The price per unit of either commodity has risen to $200.

4. Still After the War: The Rich get House-Conscious

a. For various reasons best left unexplored, the rich acquire a greater desire for housing. In terms of our example, the marginal utility of any quantity of housing doubles for them (so marginal utility = 2/q). We proceed as usual.

b. The final results are:

The price of a unit of housing soars to $214.63; that of a unit of other commodities crashes to $185.37.

i. The rich family secures 55.91 units of housing and 32.37 units of other commodities.

ii. The middle-class family secures 13.98 units of housing and 16.18 units of other commodities.

iii. The poor family secures 9.32 units of housing and 10.79 units of other commodities.

5. The Final Comparison

Original
Position

Greater Equality

Same Tastes

Rich-roof-ravenous

Housing

Rich

 50,000 45,000

55,000

Middle-class

 150,000 150,000

139,800

Poor

 5,000 10,000

9,300

Other Commodities

Rich

 50,000 45,000

32,400

Middle-class

 150,000 150,000

161,800

Poor

 5,000 10,000

10,800

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MIDQUARTER EXAMINATION IN ECONOMICS 300A
Autumn, 1946

1. Descriptive data:

a. Population: a community consists of three classes—rich, middle-class, and poor. The numbers and family incomes are:

Rich: 1,000 families, $10,000 income per family.

Middle-class: 10,000 families, $3,000 income per family.

Poor: 1,000 families, $1,000 income per family.

b. Commodities: There are two commodities: housing and food, considered as single composite commodities.

c. Demand curves: All individuals in the community have the following demand curves:

h = I/(2 ph)

f = I/(2 pf)

where

h= number of housing units per time unit.

ph = price per housing unit.

f = number of food units per time unit.

pf = price per food unit.

I = income of the family per time unit.

d. Supplies available.

There are available 205,000 housing units, and 205,000 food units. These amounts are available regardless of price and cannot be increased in the period considered.

Questions:

Determine:

a. The aggregate demand curve for the entire community for (1) housing, (2) food.

b. The prices that will prevail, assuming a free market.

c. The quantity of food and housing consumed by a family of each class.

d. The elasticity of the market demand curve for each product at a quantity of 205,000 units.

 

2. Appraise the following quotation from A. C. Pigou: “Since elasticity measures variations in quantity (demanded or offered) divided by variations in a price, the elasticity of demand for anything will be seven times as large for seven similar demanders as it is for one.”

 

3. “As Sir R. Giffen has pointed out, rise in the price of bread makes so large a drain on the resources of the poorer laboring families and raises so much the marginal utility of money to them, that they are forced to curtail their consumption of meat and the more expensive farinaceous foods: and, bread being still the cheapest food which they can get and will take, they consume more, and not less of it.” Marshall, p. 132.

a. Give your own verbal explanation of how such a positively sloping demand schedule can arise.

b. Draw an indifference curve diagram that will display this phenomenon.

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Final Examination for Economics 300A
Autumn, 1946
Part I

1. Define briefly the following terms:

a. Income elasticity of demand

b. Demand curve for the product of an individual firm

c. Supply curve

d. Marginal revenue

e. Cross elasticity of demand

f. Oligopoly

 

2. Discuss critically the following quotation from Stigler:

“The principle of an increasing Syx [the marginal rate of substitution of y for x] corresponds to the older theory of diminishing marginal utility of a commodity as its quantity increases. More precisely: if Syx is increasing, then the marginal utilities of y and x must be decreasing; if the marginal utilities of y and x are decreasing, then Syx is probably, but not necessarily, increasing.”

3. Assume that the demand curve for complete flashlights of a standardized type is known; that the case and bulb are produced separately from the batteries; that the cost of putting the batteries in the case can be neglected; that the number and type of batteries put in each flashlight is fixed and unchangeable; that the supply curves of (1) case and bulb assembly and (2) batteries are known; and that the markets for complete flashlights, case and bulb assemblies, and batteries are reasonably competitive.

a. Indicate how to derive the demand curve for batteries alone. Under what assumptions is this demand curve valid; and for what kinds of problems is it relevant?

b. Suppose the supply curve of case and bulb assembly shifts to the right (i.e., supply increases). What effect will this have on the price of batteries?

c. Under what conditions would you expect the derived demand curve for batteries to be extremely inelastic?

_________________________________

Final Examination for Economics 300A
Autumn, 1946
Part II

4. Statistical demand curves for fluid milk are derived by two different procedures.

(1) Data for a particular year for the 48 states of the United States are used to obtain a correlation equation expressing (a) the price of fluid milk in a state as a function of (b) per capita consumption of fluid milk in that state and (c) per capita income in that state.

(2) Data for a period of years for the United States are used to obtain a correlation equation expressing (a) the price of milk in the United States as a function of (b) the per capita consumption of fluid milk in the United States and (c) the per capita income in the United States.

Under what conditions, if any, would you expect the results to be identical? If the results are not identical, discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of each. Indicate the conditions under which you would expect (1) to give a better estimate of “the” demand curve for milk and, the conditions under which you would expect (2) to give a better estimate. How, if at all, could one determine which set of conditions prevails.

5. “In conversations with gold mining engineers a phrase glibly and frequently repeated is ‘sweetening the ore.’ By this phrase reference is made to the practice of diverting production in profitable periods to the poorer ores and perhaps restricting output in the richer fields. Under this practice the better ores are preserved for periods in which mining costs have risen so that over a long period of time output can be held more steady. Contributing also to a policy of sweetening the ores is the reluctance of producers to install capital equipment in a period in which the tendency is for mining expenses to increase with the general advance of wages and living costs. By the time the equipment is installed it might be expected that wages and price levels would be adjusted to the increased price of gold.”

Discuss the wisdom of the policy described in this quotation from the point of view of the individual producer. Assume that the individual producer seeks to maximize the present net capital value of his mining properties. Discuss separately (a) the alleged policy of “diverting production in profitable periods to the poorer ores and perhaps restricting output in the richer fields”; (b) the alleged policy of postponing the installation of capital equipment.

6. Assume a change in the laws so that less stringent conditions are imposed for bankruptcy and reorganization in a particular field (say the production of steel). As a consequence, a number of steel firms reorganize, wiping out a large part of their bonded debt. What would you expect to be the short- and long-run effects of these events on (a) the output and prices of the reorganized firms; (b) the amount of investment in the industry; (c) the rate of interest paid by the industry for new loans; (d) the output and prices of the industry? In each case, give the basis for your answer.

_________________________________

Source: Hoover Institution Archive. Milton Friedman Papers, Box 76, Folder 9 University of Chicago Econ. 300A.

Image Source: Columbia University, Columbia 250 Celebrates Columbians Ahead of Their Time.

Categories
Chicago Regulations

Chicago. Committee on Ph.D. Outlines & Requirements, 1949-50 (3)

This is the third of a series of  items related to the University of Chicago Department of Economics’ Committee on Ph. D. Outlines and Requirements chaired by Milton Friedman (1949-50). The first installment and second installment were previously posted. A fourth installment was published after this post originally appeared.

Two seminar appearances, first as prospective candidates for the Ph.D. and ultimately to provide a definitive report of findings, are seen to constitute book-ends for thesis writers. Scope and quality of a thesis to be “comparable to [a] first-rate journal article” with quality control enforced through essentially an iterated process of revise-and-resubmit under the direction of the thesis committee.

___________________________

[MEMO #6, 13 June 1949]

[Carbon copy]

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

[Date]   June 13, 1949

[To]    T. W. Schultz                                                                        [Department] Economics

[From] R. Blough, M. Friedman, D. G. Johnson                             [Department] Economics
and J. Marschak

[In re:]           Report of committee on Ph. D. outlines and requirements.

Your note of December 10 establishing this committee asks us to “prepare a memorandum setting forth the problem of students’ Ph.D. outlines and the procedure to be followed by the Department in appraising and approving Ph.D. thesis projects, including the type of outlines and supporting materials that a student should submit to the Department for its use when it passes upon the petition for admission to candidacy.”

We have interpreted this assignment rather broadly, in the belief that an appropriate procedure for admission to candidacy could be formulated only as part of an integrated program for handling the entire thesis requirement. Accordingly, section 1 below presents our conclusions about the standards to be applied to a thesis, and section 2, about the methods for getting more effective supervision, direction, and criticism of a thesis. Section 3 restates and extends our conclusions in the form of specific proposals for action.

  1. Standards to be applied to a thesis.

It is our feeling that the existing (implicit) standards for a thesis are both too high and too low: too high ex ante and too low ex post. In our opinion, we should seek to stimulate shorter, better organized, and better written theses than those ordinarily submitted. The problems here are first, to avoid simply reducing length without improving quality; second, to enforce the standard and make it part of the mores of the Department.

In order to accomplish these purposes we recommend (a) that a statement on the role of the thesis should be prepared for distribution to candidates; (b) that every thesis should be required to have a central core not to exceed roughly 15,000 words.

(a) Role of the thesis

The thesis, in our view, is to be viewed primarily as part of the training of the economist, not as a means of securing additions to knowledge. Any addition to knowledge is a welcome by-product, not a major objective. Up to the point at which he writes a thesis, the student has been concerned primarily with absorbing substantive material, acquiring tools, and becoming familiar with techniques of analysis. He has only incidentally applied these techniques. Equally important, he has had little occasion to acquire absolute standards of quality; most of his written work has been of a “one-shot” variety involving doing his best once and then being through with it. He has not had the experience of re-doing a thing again and again until it is satisfactory in an absolute sense and not merely the best he can do in an hour or a week.

The role of the thesis is to round out the student’s education by remedying these deficiencies. More specifically it should:

(1) give the student training in research by “doing” and instill in him absolute standards of quality in research.

(2) Deepen the student’s knowledge of the technique and subject matter he has acquired in course work by requiring him to apply what he has learned to a particular problem. In the process, he should think through the material he has been subjected to and make it his own.

These objectives affect both the choice of topic and the character of the thesis. The topic should be chosen less from the point of view of novelty or importance than of the contribution it can make to the student’s education—the opportunity it offers for improving and expanding his capacities. As a general matter, this suggests topics sufficiently narrow and specific to permit the student to do a thorough and exhaustive piece of work in the time available. It argues against broad general topics in which maturity and judgment are the prime requisites.

To accomplish these objectives, the final thesis should satisfy exceedingly high standards of quality; this is far more important than quantity. As a regular matter, it should be expected that a thesis will undergo several substantive revisions before final acceptance, that an absolute standard of excellence rather than a labor-theory of value will be applied. This means that at least the central core of the thesis must be relatively brief. The standard should be a first-rate journal article, no a full-length book.

(b) The scale of the thesis

We recommend that every thesis should be required to contain a central core of not more than roughly 15,000 words. This central core is to be self contained. It may, however, be supplemented by additional chapters or appendices containing more detailed material, expansions of points in the central core, etc.

The central core should, in general, not give much space to the general character of the problem [handwritten note: “suggest to insert ‘methodological’ before ‘character’ or otherwise indicate that while we do want to have the problem stated at the beginning (the 3 lines further below) we don’t want vague methodological discussions on its place in the universe of science.”], earlier work on the problem, and the like; those belong in supporting appendices if anywhere. It should concentrate on the original material developed by the writer. It must contain a precise statement of the problem and its economic analysis, not simply summarize data, report views, or describe events. In this context, of course, economic analysis is to be interpreted broadly, not as synonymous with technical economic theory.

It should be emphasized that the restriction of the central core to 15,000 words is not intended in any way to reduce the quantity or quality of performance expected from the student. Its main objective is to improve quality. One further reason for keeping theses to this scale is the desirability of having every member of the faculty read every thesis and vote for or against its approval. This is not at present feasible but might become so if the scale of the thesis were restricted.

  1. Methods for getting more effective supervision, direction, and criticism of theses.

Our chief recommendation on this topic is that there be established a thesis seminar. This seminar should be attended as a regular matter by all students writing theses in residence. By as many faculty members as can find it possible to attend, and, in any event, by the faculty members on the thesis committee of the student reporting at a particular session. Ideally, some one or more faculty members should have direct responsibility for the seminar as part of his teaching load.

The student scheduled to report at any meeting should prepare a written report sufficiently in advance of the meeting to permit duplication and circulation among all faculty members and all student participants in the seminar. He might then begin the discussion with an introductory summary taking not more than, say, five minutes. The rest of the time would be devoted to critical discussion.

It might be expected that a student would ordinarily appear before the seminar twice: once early in his work for a discussion of the topic and its possibilities on the basis of a brief circulated report (on the scale of a term paper); once, toward the end, for a discussion of his results, on the basis of a more detailed report and possibly a draft of the “central core” of the thesis itself.

We recommend that this thesis seminar be integrated with two other steps in the thesis procedure with which there is at present some dissatisfaction: (a) admission to candidacy, (b) the final examination.

The first appearance of the student before the seminar, and the paper prepared for that purpose, should also be used as a basis for deciding on admission to candidacy. At present, it is the general feeling that we have inadequate evidence on which to judge suggested theses. The suggested change in the scale of the thesis opens up the possibility that more time can be spent in the preparatory stages and more can be asked for from the student in the way of supporting evidence. Something of the scale of a term paper is perhaps not too much to ask. In order to insure faculty participation, a tentative faculty committee should be established prior to the student’s first appearance and those named to it should be expected to attend for the department in addition to as many others as can do so.

Dissatisfaction with the final examination arises from a different source. The exam is in fact a pure formality, in view of the stage at which it comes. Candidates are in practice almost never failed at that stage. Yet the candidate is not told that it is a pure formality; he regards it as a crucial and important test.

In place of dispensing with the final exam, the second appearance of a candidate before the thesis seminar might take its place, not in the sense of an occasion for final approval of the candidate, but in the sense of a public exhibition, as it were, testifying to the candidate’s stage of development. Final approval of the thesis would be based on the decision of the thesis committee plus a poll of the entire faculty.

  1. Summary of specific recommendations

To implement the general recommendations outlined above, it is proposed that the department approve the following actions and rules:

(1) Every Ph.D. thesis submitted for final approval must contain a central core not in excess of 15,000 words in length. This central core must be self-contained but may be supplemented by supporting material. The standard of comparison should be a first-rate journal article.

(2) Preparation of a statement on the role of the thesis and the standards to which it is expected to conform for distribution to candidates.

(3) Establishment of a thesis seminar. Regular participation in this seminar is to be required of all candidates writing theses in residence. One or more faculty members is to have direct responsibility for this seminar as part of his teaching load. All other faculty members shall be encouraged to attend.

(4) A Ph.D. candidate, whether or not he writes his thesis in residence, shall be required to make at least two appearances before this seminar.

(5) The candidate’s first appearance before the seminar shall be part of the procedure for admission to candidacy. In advance of this appearance, the candidate shall prepare a brief report (on the scale of a term paper) explaining his thesis topic, the existing state of knowledge on the topic, its potentialities, and his projected plan of attack on the problem. This report shall be duplicated and circulated to all members of the seminar an all members of the faculty in advance of the meeting of the seminar. This report plus the performance of the student before the seminar shall be the principal evidence for granting admission to candidacy, provided, of course, that other requirements are met.

(6) A candidate shall be permitted to make this first appearance preparatory to admission to candidacy if he has passed at least two of the three Ph.D. preliminary examinations.

(7) A tentative faculty committee shall be named for each candidate prior to this first appearance, and shall be expected to attend the meeting of the seminar at which it takes place.

(8) The candidate’s final appearance before the seminar shall be on the basis of a more detailed report of his findings, preferably on the basis of a draft of the “central core” of the thesis. This report shall be duplicated and circulated to all members of the seminar and all members of the faculty in advance of the meeting of the seminar.

(9) This final appearance before the seminar shall replace the present final examination on the thesis.

(10) The candidates thesis committee shall be expected to attend this final appearance before the seminar.

(11) The central core of the thesis or its equivalent shall be circulated to all members of the faculty before the final acceptance of the thesis. Final acceptance shall be based on approval by the thesis committee plus a vote of all other members of the faculty.

(12) The new procedure for admission to candidacy should apply to all students in residence at the time of its adoption, and to students not in residence who have not been admitted to candidacy prior to January 1, 1950.

___________________________

 

[MEMO #7, 2 February 1950]

[Carbon copy.  Additions to the change in the text are highlighted. Items (7) and (10) are the significant additional changes in the specific recommendations.]

[THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO]

[Date]   February 2, 1950

[To]    T. W. Schultz                                                                        [Department] Economics

[From] R. Blough, M. Friedman, D. G. Johnson                             [Department] Economics
and J. Marschak

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PH. D. OUTLINES AND REQUIREMENTS

The following summary of specific recommendations is a revision of the summary on pp. 4 and 5 of our earlier report, incorporating comments and suggestions made at the department discussion of the problem. It is proposed that the department approve the following actions and rules:

(1) A Ph.D. thesis submitted for final approval will ordinarily contain a central core not in excess of 15,000 words in length. This central core must be self-contained but may be supplemented by supporting material. In scope and quality, it shall be comparable to first-rate journal article.

(2) Preparation of a statement on the role of the thesis and the standards to which it is expected to conform for distribution to candidates.

(3) Establishment of a thesis seminar. Regular participation in this seminar is to be required of all candidates writing theses in residence. One or more faculty members is to have direct responsibility for the organization and scheduling of this seminar. A session of the seminar will ordinarily be conducted by the chairman of the tentative or final thesis committee of the student presenting a report (see point 7 below). All other faculty members shall be encouraged to attend.

(4) A Ph.D. candidate, whether or not he writes his thesis in residence, shall be required to make at least two appearances before this seminar.

(5) The candidate’s first appearance before the seminar shall be prior to his admission to candidacy. In advance of this appearance, the candidate shall prepare a brief report (on the scale of a term paper) explaining his thesis topic, the existing state of knowledge on the topic, its potentialities, and his projected plan of attack on the problem. This report shall be duplicated and circulated to all members of the seminar an all members of the faculty in advance of the meeting of the seminar.

(6) A candidate shall be permitted to make this first appearance preparatory to admission to candidacy if he has passed at least two of the three Ph.D. preliminary examinations.

(7) The candidate shall have responsibility for applying for the appointment of a tentative thesis committee prior to his first appearance at the seminar. He shall be permitted to make such application at any time after he has passed at least two of the three Ph.D. preliminary examinations. The chairman of the department shall name a tentative faculty committee for each candidate, and this committee shall be expected to attend the meeting of the seminar at which it takes place. At least one member of the tentative committee shall be a person whose major field of interest is outside of the field of the proposed thesis. If admission to candidacy is granted, a final thesis committee shall be appointed by the chairman of the department.

(8) The candidate’s final appearance before the seminar shall be a definitive report of his findings. A brief resume of this report shall be duplicated and circulated to all members of the seminar and all members of the faculty in advance of the meeting of the seminar. The candidate’s thesis committee shall be expected to attend this final appearance before the seminar. [Last sentence was recommendation (10) of previous draft]

(9) The central core of the thesis or its equivalent shall be circulated to all members of the faculty before the final acceptance of the thesis. Final acceptance of the thesis shall be by vote of the members of the faculty upon the recommendation of the thesis committee.

(10) The final examination by the department shall be on the candidate’s major field. The examination shall be a function of the whole department but in any event shall be attended by members of the thesis committee and other faculty members specializing in the field.

(11) The new procedure for admission to candidacy should apply to all students in residence at the time of its adoption, and to students not in residence who have not been admitted to candidacy prior to July 1, 1950.

___________________________

[MEMO #8, undated, almost certainly 1950]

[Mimeographed copy.]

STANDARDS FOR Ph.D. THESIS

(Draft proposal for
circulation among
prospective candidates)

In order to guide candidates for the Ph.D. degree in selection of a thesis topic, the Department of Economics has formulated the following statement of standards which shall apply to doctoral dissertations in the future. Each candidate is urged to familiarize himself with the four main criteria set forth below.

I. The role of the thesis in the educational process is to develop the candidate’s ability to make significant contributions to knowledge in economics. To accomplish this objective the thesis must make a contribution to knowledge.

In addition:

a. The thesis must be concerned with an important and significant problem.

The “importance” and “significance” of a problem are, of course, to some extent matters of individual judgment. Different candidates will have different concepts of what is important what is relatively inconsequential. In selecting a topic, however, the candidate should first ask himself questions such as these: Why is the proposed topic “important”? Why is it worth spending time on? Would research on the topic contribute to general understanding of some central problem of our time? Would it contribute to clarifying or improving the conceptual or logical basis of economics? Questions such as the availability of material, opportunity for utilizing a particular technique, or the possible conclusiveness of findings, though important, are definitely secondary. The candidate should work on something that “matters”.

b. The thesis must involve analysis of an economic problem

Conceivably, any kind of original work, such as for example the mere gathering of statistics which have never been compiled before, might be “a contribution to knowledge”. However, such a task would not meet the requirements for a thesis unless it involved independent analysis of an economic problem. In other words, the compilation of material is not an end in itself; it is only a mans of achieving the objective of the thesis.

II. The topic should be sufficiently limited and specific to permit the candidate to do a thorough and exhaustive piece of work.

The doctoral candidate is not expected to tackle a broad or general problem in its entirety. On the contrary, in most cases, he can make the best contribution to knowledge and develop his capacity for undertaking research by concentrating on a clearly defined segment of an important and significant problem. Since quality rather than quantity will be the main standard for judgment of the thesis, the topic should be limited in scope in order to enable the candidate to concentrate his energies on intensive and exhaustive analysis.

Insofar as possible, the candidate should choose a topic in the broad problem area in which he feels he might want to do further research beyond the thesis. In other words the thesis should be looked upon as a stepping stone to more comprehensive research as the candidate acquires greater maturity and judgment after completing of the formal requirements for the degree. In short, the candidate should avoid choosing a “blind-alley” topic which offers few avenues to future research.

III. Every thesis must contain a central core of not more than roughly 15,000 words, (or approximately 50 typewritten pages.)

This central core is to be self-contained. It may, however, be supplemented by additional chapters or appendices containing more detailed data, expansions of points developed in the central core, etc.

The central core should, in general, not give much space to the general character of the problem, earlier work on the problem, and the like; those belong in supporting appendices, if anywhere. It should concentrate on the original material developed by the writer. It must contain a precise statement of its problem and its analysis, not simply summarize data, report views, or describe events.

IV. The thesis must conform to high standards of quality

The central core of the thesis should be comparable in quality and scope to a first-rate journal article, and the candidate should strive to have the central core of the thesis, or an adaptation thereof, published in a journal.

In order to achieve the standards of quality set forth above, it is assumed, as a regular matter, that the thesis will undergo several substantive revisions before final acceptance. Up to the point of writing a thesis, most candidates have had little occasion to acquire high standards of quality, since most of their written work has been of a “one-shot” variety. The thesis, on the other hand, must be a thorough and well-written piece of research. In other words, it must represent the best work of which the candidate is capable.

The initial reputation of the candidate is made largely on the basis of the excellence of his doctoral dissertation, and his capacity for further research is dependent upon the development of his ability to complete successfully a piece of research requiring analytical capacity, sound judgment and continued application. The thesis, then, is a challenge to the candidate to demonstrate his right to belong to the profession. It is, consequently, a major undertaking, and no something to be brushed off speedily or lightly.

___________________________

Source: Hoover Institution Archives, Papers of Milton Friedman, Box 79, Folder 5 “University of Chicago. Minutes. Ph. D. Thesis Committee.”

Image Source:  T. W. Schultz, University of Chicago Photographic Archive, apf1-07484, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library.