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Cambridge. Local Examinations Syndicate’s Political Economy and Logic Exams, 1870-72

This post provides three years’ worth of exams for the subjects of political economy and logic that constituted Group D of a battery of exams created and graded by fellows and tutors of the University of Cambridge that were taken by women wishing to become teachers and needed to have their educational achievements certified. The volume from which the following information has been transcribed covers the period 1870-1872. Miscellaneous examination rules/procedures and examiners’ reports have been included as well. Texts by John Stuart Mill,  John Elliott Cairnes and Adam Smith were the primary material for the political economy examinations with John Stuart Mill’s Logic and works by Richard Whately, William Thomson and Alexander Bain covered in the logic examinations.

____________________________

Backstory of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate.

Cambridge Assessment was established as the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) by the University of Cambridge in 1858. [It was] set up to administer local examinations for students who were not members of the University of Cambridge, with the aim of raising standards in education. [UCLES] also inspected schools.

[…]

1858

UCLES, The University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate was formed to set school leaving examinations for non-members of the university. The Syndicate comprised thirteen university academics (one as Secretary) who would set regulations, write question papers, preside over examinations, mark scripts and make the awards. The examinations were held in December to avoid conflict with the Oxford Examinations in July and the first centres were in Birmingham, Brighton, Bristol, Cambridge, Grantham, Liverpool, London and Norwich.

1862

It was decided that the Syndicate’s remit be extended to offer inspections to schools as part of the examination programme offered by the University of Cambridge.

1864

The first overseas examinations were held by UCLES in Trinidad where six candidates took the Cambridge Senior Examinations.

1868

After a successful trial in 1863 by candidates from the North London Collegiate School and a subsequent petition to the University, girls were officially allowed to enter for the Cambridge Local Examinations on the same basis as boys.

1869

The Higher Local Examinations were introduced, initially for women over eighteen who wished to become teachers. Although the HLE was discontinued in 1922 it had, by then, spawned the Certificate of Proficiency in English, the longest surviving of all UCLES examinations.

http://web.archive.org/web/20200719152624/https://www.cambridgeassessment.org.uk/about-us/who-we-are/our-heritage/

____________________________

University of Cambridge. Examination for Women.
Examination Papers for the Examination held in July, 1870
with lists of Syndics and Examiners
to which are added the Regulations for the Examination in 1871.

Cambridge: Printed at the University Press, 1870.

https://archive.org/details/examinationforw00unkngoog/page/n7/mode/2up

EXAMINATION FOR WOMEN.
[p. 4]

The following Scheme of Examinations for Women was sanctioned by Grace of the Senate, Oct, 29, 1868.

  1. That an Examination be held once in every year for women who have completed 18 years of age before the 1st of January of the year in which the Examination takes place.
  2. That this Examination be under the superintendence of the Syndicate constituted by Grace of the Senate February 11, 1858 for the conduct of the Examinations of Students who are not members of the University.
  3. That the Examinations be held in such places as the Syndicate may approve.
  4. That the Candidates be required to pay fees at the discretion of the Syndicate.
  5. That every Candidate be examined in Religious Knowledge unless she declare in writing her objection to such Examination.
  6. That neither the names of the Candidates nor any Class Lists be published.
  7. That the Candidates who have satisfied the Examiners receive Certificates, and those who have passed the Examination with credit. Certificates of Honour.
  8. That this Scheme continue in force for three years, so as to include the Examinations of 1869, 1870, and 1871.

RECOMMENDATIONS TO LOCAL COMMITTEES.
[p. 7]

  1. The Examination room must be large enough to accommodate all the Candidates.
  2. Desks must be provided so as to allow to all the Candidates at least four feet in length apiece, without requiring them to be seated on opposite sides.
  3. The desks for drawing must be so placed that the Candidates may have the light upon their left hand, unless the room be lighted from the top.
  4. A table in each of the Examination rooms, and one drawer or cupboard furnished with lock and key, will be required for the use of the Examiner.
  5. Pens, ink, writing and blotting paper must be provided. The paper must be of the size called “Cambridge Scribbling Demy.” Each sheet should be cut in four, and may be ruled or not. If ruled, the ruling of each quarter-sheet should be parallel to the shorter sides. Paper of this size can be procured from Spalding and Hodge, 145, Drury Lane; King and Loder, 239, Thames Street; Batty, Partington and Son, 174, Aldersgate Street, London; and from all Stationers in Cambridge.
    The quarter-sheets must have a hole punched in the left-hand top corner, and pack thread or the metal binders sold by Perry and Co. should be provided in order to fasten each student’s papers together.
  6. The Local Committee should arrange so that at least one of their number may attend in the Examination room.
    The writing-paper, &c. should be distributed for the use of the Candidates ten minutes before the hours fixed for the commencement of work.

Examiners for Political Economy and Logic for July 1870
[p. 6]

The following gentlemen were appointed by the Syndicate

Examiner in Political Economy for July 1870:  Rev. J. B. Mayor, M.A. late Fellow of St. John’s College.

Examiner in Logic: Ref. F. J. A. Hort, M.A. late Fellow of Trinity College.

Examination Questions for July, 1870

GROUP D.
Thursday, July 7, 1870. 4 to 6 ½

Political Economy.
[p. 50]

  1. Classify the advantages derived from Division of Labour.
  2. Distinguish between Price, Cost, Value in Use, and Value in Exchange. On what does the last depend?
  3. Examine the consequences of the substitution of machinery for hand labour in general, and particularly in the case of agriculture.
  4. Give an account of Cottier Tenure, explaining what is meant by Conacre and Tenant Right.
  5. Give a short account of the English Poor Law at the present time. What objections have been made to it?
  6. What are the principles which should guide the practice of Almsgiving?
  7. What are the uses of a Circulating Medium? Point out the mischiefs arising from its depreciation. What were the French Assignats?
  8. The use and abuse of Trades Unions.
  9. What regulates International Values?
  10. Discuss whether the expenses of a war should be met by Loan or Tax.
  11. Mention the principal errors of the Political Economists who preceded Adam Smith.
  12. The influence of Political Economy upon English legislation during the last forty years.

 

Wednesday, July 6, 1870. 12 to 2.

Logic.
[p. 51]

  1. Distinguish the several uses of language for purposes of thought. What are meant by First and Second Intentions?
  2. In what sense have words been compared to counters? Shew to what extent the comparison is just, and where it is misleading.
  3. What is meant by Division in Logic? State and exemplify its rules. Give instances of cross-division.
  4. Explain the saying that the subject of a judgement is in the predicate, and the predicate in the subject. Point out the various aspects of the double relation here intended.
  5. Explain and exemplify the Fallacy of Interrogation. What is meant by its being classified as a Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle?
  6. A. “The sky is cloudy; so we may expect rain.” B. “Yet it has been cloudy for some days, and not a drop has fallen.” A. “All the more reason for the rain to come now.” Put these three arguments into a logical form, supplying whatever is assumed; and examine the validity of each.
  7. What do you understand by Deduction, and what is its use in scientific investigation?
  8. Describe the characteristics of Empirical Laws. Why are they called laws, and why empirical?
  9. What are the respective advantages of observation and experiment?
  10. Explain distinctly what is meant by a classification according to Natural Groups. How is such a classification related to the classification involved in all use of general names?

Regulations for the Examination in 1871.
[pp. 63-66]

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
EXAMINATIONS FOR WOMEN.

There will be an Examination, commencing on Monday, July 3, 1871, open to Women who have completed the age of 18 years before Jan. 1, 1871.

Candidates will be examined in such places as the Syndics appointed by the University may determine.

The Syndicate will entertain applications from places where 25 fees at the least are guaranteed. Application must be made not later than April 1, 1871.

Before any application for an Examination can be approved, the Syndicate must be satisfied as to the following points:—

That there is a Committee of ladies who will efficiently superintend the Examination, one of whom will undertake to act as Local Secretary.

That this Committee will see that suitable accommodation can be obtained by Candidates who are strangers to the place.

That a responsible person will be at hand to receive the Examination papers from the conducting Examiner and collect the answers.

Committees wishing to have Examinations held in their several districts, may obtain all necessary information from the

Rev. G. F. BROWNE.
St Catharine’s College, Cambridge.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

  1. Every one admitted to Examination will be required to pay a fee of forty shillings. After a Certificate has been obtained, the fee in any subsequent year will be twenty shillings.
  2. Papers will be set in the subjects grouped and numbered as below. Every Candidate who has not already passed in group A is required to satisfy the Examiners in all the papers set in that group, with the exception that the papers in Religious Knowledge may be omitted by any Candidate who at the time of her application for admission to the Examination declares her objection to be examined in Religious Knowledge.
  3. The Candidates who satisfy the Examiners will receive Certificates to that effect, and those who pass the Examination with credit, Certificates of Honour. Every Certificate will specify the subjects in which the Candidate has passed.
  4. No Certificate will be granted to any Candidate who has not passed in group A and also in one of groups B, C, D and E.
  5. The names of the Candidates who pass in each group will be placed alphabetically in three classes. If a Candidate specially distinguishes herself in particular parts of the Examination, the fact will be notified by endorsement on her Certificate. After each Examination notice of the result will be sent to the home of each Candidate.
  6. A Candidate who passes in group A, but not in the further subjects necessary for obtaining a Certificate, will not be examined in the papers in that group in any future year in which she may go in to the Examination for the purpose of obtaining her Certificate.
  7. No Candidate will be examined in more subjects than the subjoined Time-table will allow.
    After passing in group A, Candidates may be examined in other groups in subsequent years.
    A schedule of books recommended by the Syndicate is appended to each group. But it is to be understood that such schedules are not intended to limit the studies of the Candidates or the range of questions in the papers set by the Examiners.

GROUP A.

  1. *Religious Knowledge.
  2. Arithmetic.
  3. Outlines of English History from the Norman Conquest to the reign of George IV. inclusive. Detailed knowledge of the period from the accession of Charles I. to the death of Cromwell will be required. A knowledge of Geography, so far as it bears on this subject, will be expected.
  4. *English Language and Literature.
  5. Every Candidate in this group will be required to write a short English Composition.

*The papers in these subjects may be taken again in subsequent years by Candidates who wish to obtain distinction in them.

GROUP B.

1. Latin. 2. Greek. 3. French. 4. German. 5. Italian.

Passages will be given for translation into English from the books mentioned in the subjoined schedule, and questions will be set on the language and subject matter of the books. In each language passages will be given for translation from some other authors, and passages of English prose for translation into each.

A knowledge of one of the five languages will enable Candidates to pass in this group. For a Certificate of Honour a knowledge of two will be required.

In the papers in French and Italian, the connexion between these languages and Latin will be included; but a knowledge of Latin will not be insisted upon as necessary for either the Pass or the Honour Certificate.

GROUP C.

  1. Euclid, Books I. II. III. IV. VI. And XI. to Prop. 21 inclusive.
  2. The elementary parts of Algebra; namely, the Rules for the Fundamental Operations upon Algebraical Symbols, with their proof; the solution of Simple and Quadratic Equations; Arithmetical and Geometrical Progression, Permutations and Combinations, the Binomial Theorem and the principles of Logarithms.
  3. The elementary parts of Plane Trigonometry, so far as to include the solution of Triangles.
  4. The simpler properties of the Conic Sections, treated either geometrically or analytically.
  5. The elementary parts of Statics, including the equilibrium of Forces acting in one plane, the properties of the Centre of Gravity, the laws of Friction, and the Mechanical Powers.
  6. The elementary parts of Astronomy, so far as they are necessary for the explanation of the more simple phenomena.
  7. The elementary parts of Dynamics, including the laws of Motion, Gravity, and the Theory of Projectiles.

A knowledge of the first two of these subjects will be required to enable a Candidate to pass in this group. For a Certificate of Honour, a knowledge of two at least of the remaining five will be required in addition.

GROUP D.

1. Political Economy. 2. Logic.

A knowledge of one of these subjects will enable a Candidate to pass in this group. For a Certificate of Honour, a knowledge of both will be required.

GROUP E.

1. Botany. 2. Geology and Physical Geography. 3. Zoology. 4. Chemistry (theoretical and practical).

A knowledge of one of these subjects will enable a Candidate to pass in this group. For a Certificate of Honour, a knowledge of two of them will be required.

GROUP F.

1. Music 2. Drawing.

A paper will be given in the latter subject containing questions on the History of Art

Every Candidate in Drawing is required to bring with her to the Examination one finished drawing, or painting, executed by herself, of such a kind as may best shew her proficiency, and which must be described as a “study from Nature,” an “original drawing,’* or a “copy from a drawing,” as the case may be.

Two hours will be allowed for a sketch, or copy, of some portion or detail of the above work, and this exercise will be judged with the finished work.

The sketch together with the finished drawing will be sent to the Examiner in Drawing. The latter will he returned to the Candidate after inspection by him.

Candidates will also be required to draw from a model.

Proficiency in these subjects will not count towards a Certificate, but will be notified on the Certificate in cases where the Candidate obtains one.

[…]

[Readings for 1871 Examinations]

“It may be expected that about two-thirds of the questions set in each paper will have reference to the books mentioned under the Group to which it belongs.”

[…]

GROUP D.

  1. Mill, Political Economy. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations.
  2. Mill, Logic. Thomson, Outlines of the Laws of Thought. Whately, Logic, Books II. and III. with App. 2.

[…]

DIRECTIONS TO CANDIDATES.
[p. 69]

  1. Be at your seat in the Examination Room five minutes before the time fixed in the preceding table for the Examination in the several subjects.
    [Note: For Group D, Logic and Geology examinations scheduled for Wednesday July 5 (1871) 12 to 2; Political economy and German examinations scheduled for Thursday, July 6 (1871), 4 to 6 ½.]
  2. Write your index number in the right-hand top corner (not the one with the pinched hole) of every sheet of paper which you use, and your name as well as your number on the first sheet of each set of papers.
  3. Write only on one side of the paper. Fill each sheet before you take another. Leave a blank space after each answer.
  4. Answer the questions as nearly as you can in the order in which they are set, and write the number of each question before the answer.
  5. As soon as notice is given (which will be five minutes before the end of the time allowed), arrange your papers in proper order, so that the first page may be at the top, see that they all have the number by which you are known written upon them, fasten them according to the direction of the Examiner, and give them unfolded to him.
  6. No Candidate can be allowed to give up her papers and leave the room until half an hour has expired from the time at which the papers are given out. A paper will not be given to any Candidate who is more than half an hour late.
  7. No Candidate can be allowed to remain in the Examination Room after her paper is given up to the Local Examiner.

____________________________

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

EXAMINATION FOR WOMEN
ABOVE EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE

Report of the Syndicate Presented to the Senate, Oct. 30, 1871 with Supplementary Tables.

Cambridge: Printed at the University Press, 1871.

https://archive.org/details/examinationforw00unkngoog/page/n89/mode/2up

GROUP D
Political Economy, Logic
[p. 4]

Number of candidates: 13

Passed in Class I: 2

Passed in Class II: 4

Passed in Class III: 5

Failed: 2

Examiners’ Comments
[p. 7]

Logic. The Examiner finds fault with the manner in which the answers were given. They were marked by a lack of decision and of terseness of expression, arising probably from the want of practice in writing out the answers to definite questions. Some Candidates wasted time in giving reasons for their inability to answer parts of the questions.

Political Economy. The Examiner reports as follows:—I think the examination in Political Economy very satisfactory on the whole. I have met with no brilliant or striking performance; but the majority of papers gave evidence of conscientious and intelligent study of the subject, and shewed an apprehension of principles lively and clear as far as it went, though not profound. There was rarely any irrelevance in the answers; but I noticed sometimes a want of proportion, a disposition to dilate at length on comparatively unimportant points, against which it may be worth while to warn Candidates.

____________________________

University of Cambridge. Examination for Women.

Examination Papers for the Examination held in July 1871
with lists of Syndics and examiners
to which are added the Regulations for the Examination in 1872.

https://archive.org/details/examinationforw00unkngoog/page/n107/mode/2up

Examiners for July 1871
[p. 8]

Logic:  [no one named]

Political Economy: [no one named]

Examination Questions for July 1871
GROUP D
[pp. 46-49]

Thursday, July 6, 1871. 4 to 6½.
Political Economy

  1. Define Labour. Distinguish Productive/Unproductive Labour.
    Under which head would you class the labour of (1) Professors, (2) Policemen?
    Examine the causes of the difference of wages in different employments: explaining, for the sake of illustration,

    1. The low average wages of poets, governesses, plough-boys,
    2. The high average wages of solicitors and navvies.
  2. Why do we pay no wages to Members of Parliament?
  3. Define Capital. Is champagne ever Capital? Is the stock of a theatre? Explain carefully, with whatever qualifications appear necessary, the principle
    “That demand for commodities is not demand for labour.”
    Why then are wages high when trade is good? and what would be the loss to Paris if the spendthrifts of Europe ceased to go there for amusement?
  4. Explain how the kind of wealth produced, and the place and manner of its production, are determined under a system of Free Competition. It has been sometimes thought that the mode of employing capital which would most benefit individual capitalists does not always coincide with that which would most benefit the state. Discuss briefly any opinions of this kind with which you are acquainted, and any legislative measures to which they have given rise.
  5. Explain the distribution of wealth under a system of Free Competition. Mention any other methods of distribution that have historically existed or have been recently proposed: and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the latter.
    If the Metayer system were suddenly made compulsory in England, what would be the probable effects?
  6. Compare Rent with the profit gained by a patent, and that gained by a monopoly.
    It has been said that what is ordinarily called rent is really profit on the capital that has been employed in reclaiming and improving land. Discuss this assertion.
  7. Explain how, and to what extent, Exchange value can be said to be determined both by cost of production and by supply and demand. How is the value (1) of partridges, (2) of mutton, determined in England at present?
    Why is there anything peculiar in the determination of the value of foreign commodities? Sketch the probable effect on our trade with France of an immense discovery of coal in that country.
  8. Discuss the changes in the relative values of different articles, due to the progress of European civilization up to the present time: inquiring how far they are to be explained by general laws and how far by special circumstances. What similar changes are to be expected in the future?
    Illustrate by referring to bullion, com, beef, cloth.
  9. What restrictions are at present imposed on the lending of money or credit? Mention any other restrictions that have actually existed or have been proposed. Discuss the advisability of any of these restrictions.
  10. Give general principles of taxation: and apply them to determine the propriety of

(1) The Income-tax as it at present exists.
(2) The Malt-tax.
(3) A tax on matches.

 

Wednesday, July 5, 1871. 12 to 2.
Logic

  1. Why has the name of Organon been given to Logic? A recent treatise on Logic has been described as “based on a combination of the Old and the New Organon”: what do you understand by this?
  2. Logic is “the science of the operations of the understanding which are subservient to the estimation of evidence.” Is this definition co-extensive with Thomson’s? Does it appear to you a satisfactory one?
  3. What is Language? Shew by examples how it enables us to analyse complex impressions, and to abbreviate the processes of thought.
  4. What is “a system of cognate genera”?
  5. Give an account of the controversy between the Nominalists and the Realists, and explain what is meant by describing it as a question of Method rather than of Metaphysics.
  6. Interpret the judgment — No tyranny is secure — according to Extension, Intension, and Denomination.
  7. What is meant by the Quantification of the Predicate? What are its advantages?
  8. Shew the use of the lines commencing Barbara. Construct examples of Camestres and Bokardo, and reduce them to the First Figure. Discuss the propriety of retaining the Fourth Figure, and the necessity of rules for the reduction of the Second and Third Figures.
  9. Explain and exemplify the fallacy of Division, and that of Composition. To what class are they to be referred? In what way does the ambiguity of the word all sometimes give occasion to one of these fallacies?
  10. Test the following by logical rules:
    1. If the parks were closed, some persons would be aggrieved: but the parks are not closed, therefore no persons are aggrieved.
    2. It is possible that John may come to-morrow ; it is very probable that William will come to-morrow ; it is absolutely certain that Thomas will come to-morrow; therefore it is probable that John, William, and Thomas will come to-morrow.
  11. What is a Law of Nature? When may a Law of Nature be said to be explained? ls it possible that all the sequences of nature will ultimately be resolved into one law?
  12. Discuss one of the following questions: —
    1. What makes “the Exact Sciences” exact?
    2. Are the methods of physical inquiry applicable to moral and political phenomena?
    3. Is it desirable for a scientific man to have a lively imagination ?

Readings for 1872 Examinations
GROUP D
[p. 64]

1. Political Economy. 2. Logic.

1. Mill, Political Economy. *Cairnes, Logical Method of Political Economy. *Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations(McCulloch’s edition).

2. Mill, Logic [Omitting the following: Book I. ch. 3 (except §1); Book II. Ch. 4-7; Book III. Ch. 5 §9 and note, ch. 12, ch. 18, ch 23, ch. 24 (except §1,2); Book V. ch. 3 §3-6; Book VI. Ch. 2]. Whately, Logic, Books II. And III. With App. 2. *Thomson, Outlines of the Laws of Thought. *Mansel, Prolegomena Logica. *Bain, Inductive and Deductive Logic.

___________________

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
EXAMINATION FOR WOMEN

Examination Papers For the Examination Held in June 1872
to which are added The Regulations for the Examination in 1873.

https://archive.org/details/examinationforw00unkngoog/page/n178/mode/2up

Examiners for June 1872
[p. 8]

Logic: Rev. J. B. Pearson, M.A., Fellow of St John’s College.

Political Economy: Rev. W. M. Campion, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Queen’s College.

Examination Questions for June 1872
GROUP D
[pp. 51-54]

Wednesday, June 19, 1872. 12 m. to 2 p.m.
Logic

  1. Assuming that Logic is correctly defined as ‘the Science of the Laws of Formal Thinking,’ investigate the relation between Logic and Psychology, and between Logic and Grammar.
  2. Discuss briefly from Mill’s point of view the statements (a) that Logic is entirely conversant about language, (b) that it is the art of discovering truth, (c) that it is an a priori
  3. How does Mill distinguish between abstract and concrete terms? Is the distinction as drawn by him identical with that drawn by Thomson between abstract and concrete representations? Does he regard adjectives as abstract or concrete?
  4. Give an account of the logical processes known by the name of Conversion.
  5. Construct original concrete syllogisms in Festino, Darapti, Bokardo. Express each according to Hamilton’s method of notation. Reduce them to the First Figure, explaining how the various letters in the words guide you in doing so.
  6. Explain the terms Dilemma, Enthymeme, Sorites, Differentia, Cross-division, Undistributed Middle, Petitio Principii.
  7. ‘The sole invariable antecedent of a phenomenon is probably its cause.’ Of which of Mill’s four methods of Experimental Inquiry is this a statement? Discuss its utility as an instrument for the investigation of Nature.
  8. Distinguish between the Terminology and the Nomenclature of a science. Can the Terminology of a science be satisfactory, when its Nomenclature is unsatisfactory ?
  9. How does Mill classify Fallacies? Give an account of the class under which he includes ‘attempts to resolve phenomena radically different into the same.’
  10. Give Bain’s account of the method of arranging a ‘Science of Classification.’
  11. State the following arguments in simple and complete logical form, test them by recognised logical rules, and give the name of the argument or fallacy as the case may be:
    (a) His imbecility of character might have been inferred from his proneness to favourites; for all weak princes have this failing.
    (b) Improbable events happen almost every day; but what happens almost every day is a very probable event ; therefore improbable events are very probable events.
    (c) By what means did he gain that high and honourable place? Certainly not by integrity and devotion to duty, for unfortunately many consummate scoundrels are successful applicants for such posts of trust.
  12. Give the heads of such an essay as you would write in two hours upon the application of the Deductive Method to the Science of Society.

Thursday, June 20, 1872. 4 to 6½.
Political Economy

  1. What is the province of Political Economy? What definitions of the science have been suggested? State which you prefer, and give reasons for your preference.
  2. State the requisites of production; and distinguish between productive and unproductive labour.
    How would you class the labour of Actors, Literary Lecturers, Professors, Barristers?
  3. Define Capital, fixed Capital, circulating Capital.
    What phenomena may be expected to be exhibited during the rapid conversion of circulating Capital into fixed Capital and to that conversion?
  4. Establish the principle:
    “Demand for commodities is not demand for labour.”
    Can you mention any case in which this principle is not applicable?
  5. Examine the effect on production caused by the separation of employments.
    Account for the different rates of wages in different employments, and for the different rates of gross profits in different trades.
  6. What was “the mercantile system”?
    Give a brief account of the agricultural systems of Political Economy as they are described by Adam Smith.
  7. State Ricardo’s theory of rent. What objections have been made to it? Examine their validity. How does Adam Smith’s theory of farm-rents differ from Ricardo’s?
  8. “It may and often does happen that a country imports an article from another, though it might be possible to produce the imported article with less cost in the importing country than in that from which it is imported.”
    How do you explain this seeming paradox?
  9. What is the Malthusian doctrine of population?
    What result do you consider would follow in England if the mortality among young children of the labouring class were very materially reduced?
  10. “Ireland pays dearer for her imports in consequence of her absentees.”
    Establish this proposition.
  11. Discuss the policy of the English poor-law from an economical point of view.
  12. “There are no public institutions for the education of women, and there is accordingly nothing useless, absurd, or fantastical in the common course of their education.”
    What was Adam Smith’s opinion with respect to endowments for educational purposes? To what extent do you conceive that he was influenced in making the foregoing statement by his individual experience?
  13. Discuss one of the following assertions:

(1) A country will always have as much pauperism as it chooses to pay for.
(2) Educational endowments are employed more advantageously in assisting learners than in paying teachers.

Readings for 1873 Examinations
GROUP D
[pp. 67-68]

1. Political Economy. 2. Logic.

A knowledge of one of these subjects will enable a Candidate to pass in this group. For a Certificate of Honour, a knowledge of both will be required.

1. Mill, Political Economy. *Cairnes, Logical Method of Political Economy. *Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations(McCulloch’s edition).

2. Mill, Logic [Omitting the following: Book I. ch. 3 (except §1); Book II. Ch. 4-7; Book III. Ch. 5 §9 and note, ch. 13, ch. 18, ch 23, ch. 24 (except §1,2); Book V. ch. 3 §3-6; Book VI. Ch. 2]. Whately, Logic, Books II. And III. With App. 2. *Thomson, Outlines of the Laws of Thought. *Bain, Inductive and Deductive Logic.

 

Source: Excerpts from several University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate publications.

 

Categories
Bryn Mawr Chicago Economists Gender Home Economics Illinois Radcliffe

Bryn Mawr. Economics Ph.D. Alumna. Lorinda Jane Perry, 1913.

 

This new entry in the series “Meet an economics Ph.D. alumna/us” features the 1913 Bryn Mawr Ph.D., Lorinda Jane Perry. Details about the last 25 years of her life are relatively scarce compared to the events leading up to her last academic position as an associate professor at Hunter College in New York City, i.e. up through the first half of the 1920s. She apparently left economics to go to the Law School at the University of Chicago and as of the 1940 Census was sharing a home in Chicago with four likewise single siblings (a former member of the Illinois Legislature, an attorney, a urologist in private practice and a medical doctor working in the Health Department). 

___________________

Lorinda Jane Perry
Timeline

1884. Born December 23rd in Melvin, Illinois.

1900-1904. Illinois State Normal University.

From the Index, 1904 Yearbook of I.S.N.U.

While in high school I burned with a desire to know all of the latest slang. But that fire has been quenched. Now I can’t bear such expressions as “Oh! Deah,” or “By Jinks” and others. Now I see the wrong and wish to form a society for the “Purification of the American Girl’s Language.” I have not outlined my course of action, but hope some day to sing with the poet:

“Hail to the graduating girl, who is sweeter far than some,
Who when she talks, speaks no slang and chews no chewing gum.”

Between 1904 and 1906. Lorinda Perry taught in country schools near Melvin and Monmouth, Ill.

1906-1909. A.B. in Economics and History at the University of Illinois.

1909-1910. A.M. University of Illinois. The History of the Lake Shipping Trade of Chicago. Simon Litman, thesis supervisor.

1910-11. Women’s Educational and Industrial Union Fellowship at Radcliffe.

A fellowship of $500.00 established and maintained by the Massachusetts Federation of Women’s Clubs and the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union, 1905-1909, has been continued by the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union for the year 1910-11. This fellowship is offered to a graduate student who has been recommended by the Professors of Economics in Radcliffe College. The holder of the fellowship must devote one year to research under the Department of Research of the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union with a stipend of $500, and one year to graduate courses at Radcliffe College with the usual tuition fees as stated in the Radcliffe College catalogue; or she may devote one-half time to research work at the Union and one-half time to graduate courses at the College for two years, with a stipend of $300 per year. Applications for the year 1911-12 should be made before May 1, 1911, through the Dean of Radcliffe College.
The fellowship was awarded in 1905-07 to Caroline Manning (Carleton College) A.B. 1898, (Radcliffe) A.M. 1907; in 1907-08 to Grace Faulkner Ward (Smith) A.B. 1900; in 1908-10 to Edith Gertrude Reeves (University of South Dakota) A.B. 1906, (Radcliffe) A. B. 1907, A.M. 1910; in 1910-11 to Lorinda Perry (University of Illinois) A.B. 1909, A.M. 1910.
Source: Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer of Radcliffe College 1909-10, p. 66.

1911-13. Graduate Student at Bryn Mawr College. Fellow in the Department of Research, Women’s Educational and Industrial Union.

1913. Ph.D. Bryn Mawr. Millinery as a Trade for Women. New York: Longmans, Green, and Company. Susan Myra Kingsbury and Marion Parris Smith, dissertation supervisors.

[From the Preface, written by Susan M. Kingsbury, pp. viii-iv]

“In the fall of 1910, Miss Lorinda Perry, a graduate of the University of Illinois, 1909, securing a Master’s degree in 1910, and Miss Elizabeth Riedell, a graduate of Vassar College, 1904, were awarded Fellowships in the Department of Research of the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union and selected for investigation the subject of Millinery as a Trade for Women. During the year employers and employees were interviewed, and the results secured from the former were analyzed and interpreted by Miss Perry, from the latter by Miss Riedell.

In the years 1911 to 1913, Miss Perry held a Fellowship at Bryn Mawr College and under the direction of Dr. Marion Parris Smith, Associate Professor of Economics, continued the study of the millinery trade in Philadelphia. Miss Perry’s discussion of the trade in the two cities was accepted by Bryn Mawr College in partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in May, 1913. In Philadelphia the field work was conducted by the Consumers’ League and at their expense under Miss Perry’s direct supervision. Fortunately the information on the trade in Boston was brought up to date by the courtesy of a number of Boston employers who permitted their entire pay rolls to be copied from their books by the secretaries of our Research Department. Tabulations of this data and retabulations of the earlier Boston material by our secretaries enabled Miss Perry to unify the two studies and to revise most of her earlier work and that prepared by Miss Riedell. Those sections dealing with the effect of seasons on Boston employees and on Boston workers in the trade as secured from personal interviews are therefore the combined work of the two students.

The method of attack, the range of inquiry and the extent of returns in the investigation are all presented in the introductory chapter. As this was one of the first studies of the type by the department and indeed in the country, the schedules were far from perfect resulting in an incompleteness which in later studies of the series has been avoided. It is to be regretted that the opportunity to use pay rolls came only within the last year so that detailed information as to wages was not obtained from the workers who were visited in their homes, as was done in the study of The Boot and Shoe Industry in Massachusetts as a Vocation for Women. It is also unfortunate that pay rolls could not be secured in Philadelphia.

Prepared for the purpose of affording students training in social investigation, the study must lack in finish of presentation and completeness of interpretation; but the work has been carefully supervised and supplemented by every means available to the Research Department. In order that the survey may serve as large a group as possible, the material is often presented in much greater detail and the tables arranged with much smaller class intervals than might at first appear necessary or desirable, although discussions in the text often deal with larger groupings. Indeed in many tables the facts are presented for each case, especially where subclassification has made the number considered too small for generalization. We hope that agencies interested in a study of minimum wage laws, in other regulation of working conditions by legislation, in vocational guidance and placement, in industrial education, and especially, in awakening the public conscience may each find here data which can be rearranged or grouped so as to form a basis upon which to act.”

1914-1916. Head of Department of Political and Social Sciences at Rockford College

1916. Dissertation published The Millinery in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry. Binghamton,New York: Vail-Ballou.

1916-1920. Associate in Department of Household Science. University of Illinois.

DR . PERRY TO GIVE COURSE IN HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTING

Dr . Lorinda Perry, associate in home economics, will have charge of a class in household accounting to be given under the auspices of the Home Improvement association of Champaign . The course will be open to members of the association only, but membership in the organization is open to any who wish to join. The object of the course is to teach the women how to place their homes on a business basis.

Source: Daily Illini, March 8, 1919, p. 5.

1917-1918. “Some Recent Magazine Articles on the Standard of Living,” Journal of Home Economics. Vol. 9 (December 1917), pp. 550-558. Concluding Part. Vol. 10 (January 1918), pp. 9-17.

1919. Taught in Chicago according to report in the Daily Illini, Nov. 22, 1919, p. 8.

1920. Appointed Associate Professor of Economics at Hunter College, New York City.

Ca. 1928. J.D. University of Chicago.

1926-27 Registration of Second Year Student, Lorinda Perry, Resident Autumn, Winter, Spring Quarters.
Source: University of Chicago, The Law School, 1927-28. In Announcements Vol. XXVII, no. 22 (May 10, 1927). p. 20.

1931. [Miss Lorinda Perry of Chicago] while in Melvin during the Thanksgiving season, learned that she had been successful in passing the state bar examination”. The Paxton Record (Illinois), Dec. 3, 1931, p. 10.

1940. U.S. census. Living with brothers and sisters, in Chicago Ward 5, University Ave. No occupation listed either for her or her older sister Josephine (who had twice been elected to the Legislature of Illinois from the Fifth district from 1930 to 1934).

1951. Died August 30th in Chicago, Illinois. Last residing at 6221 University Ave., Chicago.

 

Principal Source: Obituary in The Paxton Record (Illinois), September 6, 1951, p. 1.

Image Source: from the Holton/Kinney/Foster/Watson family tree posted at ancestry.com.

 

 

Categories
Bryn Mawr Economists Gender

Bryn Mawr. Economics Ph.D. Alumna, Marion Parris, 1908

 

Searching the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division for economist portraits, I came across the above picture of Bryn Mawr professor Marion Parris. Figuring there is always room at Economics in the Rear-view Mirror’s series “Get to know an economics Ph.D. alumna”, I did a quick day’s work surfing familiar and new internet beaches in search of any information about Marion Parris.

Her career path was fairly simple. She was a star economics student who graduated from Bryn Mawr in 1901 to go on to get her Ph.D. in economics there and later to join its faculty where her husband also taught–history professor William Roy Smith. Shortly following her husband’s death in 1938, she resigned her Bryn Mawr professorship.

She was awarded the Bryn Mawr European Fellowship that she used to attend the University of Vienna. “It is awarded annually to a member of the graduating class of Bryn Mawr College on the ground of excellence in scholarship. The fellowship is intended to defray the expenses of one year’s study and residence at some foreign university, English or Continental. The choice of a university may be determined by the holder’s own preference, subject to the approval of the Faculty.” [Bryn Mawr College Calendar. Undergraduate and Graduate Courses, 1909. Vol. II, Part 3, (May, 1909), p. 65.]

Vitals: Born Marion Nora Parris on 22 May 1879 in New York City. Died 20 December 1968 in Mount Vernon, New York. Married in New York, June 1912. No children.

The previous post lists the courses Marion Parris taught in 1909-10.

________________________

Publications

Parris, Marion. Total Utility and the Economic Judgment Compared with Their Ethical Counterparts. Philadelphia: J. C. Winston Co., 1909. [Her Ph.D. dissertation]

__________. Review of “The Common Sense of Political Economy” by P. H. Wicksteed.  American Academy of Political and Social Science, Annals Vol. 37 (January/June 1911), pp. 574-75.

__________. Review of Individualism by Warner Fite. Four Lectures on the Significance of Consciousness for Social Relations. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1911. American Economic Review (June 1911) pp. 312-314.

__________. Review of Valuation: its Nature and Laws by Wilbur Marshall Urban. London: Swan Sonnenschein and Company; New York, Macmillan Company, 1909. Political Science Quarterly, Vol. XXVI, No. 1 (March 1911), pp. 169-171.

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Newspaper Report from Australia (1934)

Distinguished American Woman
Professor Marion Parris Smith, of Bryn Mawr

Professor of economics at Bryn Mawr, the famous American women’s college in Pennsylvania, Professor Marion Parris Smith is visiting Melbourne at present with her husband, Professor William Roy Smith, who is professor of history at Bryn Mawr. Possessed of an exceptionally attractive personality and with a ready and sympathetic interest in all outside affairs, Professor Marion Parris Smith’s interest in economics has extended from her college work to national affairs. As economic adviser for Montgomery county she is in close touch with the progress of the National Recovery Act—N.R.A.—which she believes to be based on sound fundamental principles. “Conditions vary so much that I cannot generalize about its success,” she said. “I am entirely in sympathy, and I believe that its success will mean more scope for individual initiative. It will only be a question of playing the same game with different rules. One of the greatest difficulties has been in obtaining agreements between States to obtain uniform conditions. Last year the Minister for Labour (Miss Frances Perkins) was working on this problem of ‘bootleg labour.’” The term “bootleg,” she explained, was used now to describe anything illicit.

“The results of the N.R.A. will probably turn out to be uneven in their effect,” she said. “So much depends on individual conditions, but already the industrial east and the south are showing amazing improvements.”

Professor Smith is keenly interested in studying the manner in which other countries are meeting the depression, and 45[?] huge volumes are the result of a collection of clippings from foreign papers relating to depression which she began in 1929 when she and her husband were in Egypt. The clippings have been indexed under broad headings, such as tariffs and international trade, agricultural depression, and the consumer, and next year Professor Smith’s advance students will begin the task of editing them. It is possible that her research work will be published later in book form.

“I am convinced that the ‘domestic allotment system’ which has been established by the Bureau of Agriculture to cut down over-production is a great thing,” Professor Smith said. “The farmers have had no relief since 1920. Although we have had co-operative systems in distribution the same system has never been applied to production before. I like it because it will be done by the people on the spot, elected by the farmers themselves.”

Professor Marion Smith is herself a graduate of Bryn Mawr. She did her post-graduate course at the University of Vienna—the first foreign woman to take the course in economics there—prefacing it by a six months course in languages at the University of Jena.

Until the depression Professor Smith found it easy to obtain positions for all her post-graduate students, most of whom take up research work along specialized lines. One of her students is economic adviser to the tariff committee in Washington; another is economic secretary to the president of one of the largest banks in New York. The graduates—the alumnae—take an important part in the life of Bryn Mawr. They have raised three large endowments, and some of the finest buildings at the college stand to their credit. Many of America’s distinguished women are among the college graduates—Margaret Barnes, whose novel, “Years of Grace,” was awarded a Pulitzer Prize; Miriam O’Brien, who holds a woman’s record for rock climbing; and Katharine Hepburn, the film actress, among them.

Source: The Argus, 31 July 1934, p. 10.

Image Source: Marion Parris Smith ca. 1916 from the Bain Collection in Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.

Categories
Bryn Mawr Economics Programs Gender

Bryn Mawr. Undergraduate and graduate economic courses, Williamson and Parris, 1909

 

This post resulted from my search for biographical/career information concerning the Bryn Mawr economics Ph.D. alumna, Marion Parris. Next post will be devoted to biographical detail. This post gives us a snap-shot of the Bryn Mawr undergraduate and graduate economics programs as of 1909/10 which is just after Marion Parris’ fellowship to study at the University of Vienna. 

___________________________

Economics and Politics Faculty

Charles Clarence Williamson, Ph.D., Associate in Economics and Politics.

A.B., Western Reserve University, 1904; Ph.D., Columbia University, 1907. Assistant in Economics and Graduate Student, Western Reserve University, First Semester, 1904-05; Scholar in Political Economy, University of Wisconsin, 1904-05; Graduate Student, University of Wisconsin, 1905-06; University Fellow in Political Economy, Columbia University, 1906-07; Research Assistant of the Carnegie Institution, 1905-07.

Marion Parris, A.B., Associate in Economics and Politics.

A.B., Bryn Mawr College, 1901. Graduate student, Bryn Mawr College, 1902-05. Fellow in Economics and Politics, 1905-06; Bryn Mawr College Research Fellow and Student in Economics and Politics, University of Vienna, 1906-07.

 

Undergraduate and Graduate Instruction in Economics and Politics.

The instruction in this department is under the direction of Dr. Charles Clarence Williamson, Associate in Economics and Politics, and Miss Marion Parris, Associate in Economics and Politics. The instruction offered by this department covers twenty-three hours of lectures and recitations a week; it includes ten hours a week of undergraduate minor and major work; two hours a week of free elective work; five hours a week of post-major work open only to graduates and to undergraduates who have completed the major course in economics and politics; and six hours a week of graduate work.

The object of the undergraduate courses in economics and politics is three-fold: first, to trace the history of economic and political thought; second, to describe the development of economic and political institutions; and third, to consider the practical economic and political questions of the day. Instruction is given by lectures. The lectures are supplemented by private reading, by oral and written quizzes, by written theses and reports, and by such special class-room exercises as the different subjects require.

 

First Year.
(Minor Course.)
(Given in each year.)

1st Semester.

Introduction to Economics, Miss Parris.

Five hours a week.

The objects of this course are to introduce the students to the economic problems in the modern state, to familiarise them with the main problems in economic science, and to train them to think clearly on economic subjects. The main work of the semester is the study of the nature and extent of supply, including a brief outline of economic geography, the nature and laws of demand, an introduction to the theory of wants, value and fixing of price, and the theory of economic institutions, methods of production, methods of exchange, international exchange, and transportation problems. The lectures are supplemented by a large amount of reading from standard economic authors. Numerous short papers are required and oral and written quizzes are frequently held.

 

2nd Semester.

Introduction to Politics, Dr. Williamson.

Five hours a week.

This is a study of the organisation and workings of American political institutions, as much use being made of historical and comparative materials as the limits of the course permit. The legislative, executive and judicial branches of the national and state governments are studied, with some attention to their origin and development, and with special reference to their efficiency and amenability to popular control. Lectures are given on the organisation and legislative methods of the United States Senate and House of Representatives, the election and powers of the president, the civil service and the federal courts. A brief time is allotted to a similar study of the state governments, after which problems of municipal government, political parties, suffrage and elections are treated. Lastly, the functions of the modern state are examined with special reference to the contentions of individualism and socialism.

 

Second Year.
(Given in each year)

1st Semester.

Social Politics, Dr. Williamson.

Five hours a week.

The work of the preceding year is continued by a thorough study of the economic position of the working classes under the industrial regime. The rise of the problem is traced; radical and conservative programmes of reform are examined; the arguments for and against state action are discussed in connection with a concrete study of legislation in various countries designed to ameliorate the conditions of employment and to promote the economic and social well-being of the weaker classes of society. The methods of securing legal enactment, constitutional hindrances, and the difficulties of enforcing factory laws are treated with special reference to the experience of American states. The chief topics taken up are the industrial revolution and the factory system, socialism and the labor movement, labor organisations and the methods of securing industrial peace, the labor of women and children, factory inspection, employers’ liability, workmen’s insurance, and industrial education.

 

2nd Semester.

History of Economic Thought, Miss Parris.

Five hours a week.

The object of this course is twofold. First, to trace the development of certain of the most fundamental concepts in modern economic theory, such as the theories of value, concepts of capital and interest, rent, wages, monopoly, etc., in order to appreciate critically modern economic theory. Secondly, by relating economic thinking to the political and economic history, and to the religious and philosophical thinking of the successive historical epochs studied, to give the student a proper historical background for further study.

The students will be required to read critically portions of Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics in translation, also selections from the mediaeval canonistic writers: Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, Vol. I; Ricardo’s Principles of Political Economy and Taxation; Malthus’s Principles of Population; and selections from Senior’s Political Economy, John Stuart Mills’s Principles of Political Economy, and Jevons’s Political Economy. Numerous short papers, written quizzes, and one report on some specially assigned subject will be required.

Group: Economics and Politics, with History, or with Law, or with Philosophy.

Free Elective Courses.

Methods of Social Research, Miss Parris.

Two hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1909-10 and again in 1911-12.)

The course begins with a brief account of modern institutions for social research and social reform. Various methods of social research will then be studied and reports required on special problems in social statistics, and the collection and graphical representation of material. Booth’s Life and Labour in London, Bailey’s Modern Social Conditions and Henderson’s Modern Methods of Charity will be used as text-books. The course is open only to those students who have attended the minor course in economics and politics.

 

Municipal Government, Dr. Williamson.

Two hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1910-11.)

The course consists of a general survey of the more important problems of American city government. The chief topics treated are, the origin of the city, the growth of urban population, with its economic and political results, the position of the city is the state government, political parties and municipal government, municipal elections, and the municipal functions, such as police and fire protection, sanitation, and education. The policy of municipal ownership of public utilities will be examined in its various aspects. This course is open only to those students who have attended the minor course in economics and politics.

 

Post-major Courses.

The post major courses are designed to bridge over the interval between the ordinary undergraduate studies and graduate work. As the amount of time given to undergraduate subjects differs in different colleges graduate students frequently find it advisable to elect some of these courses.

Public Economy, Dr. Williamson.

Two hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1908-09 and again in 1910-11.)

This course begins with a discussion of the nature of the public economy and its relation to private economics. After tracing the development of the public economy, theories of the economic activity of the modern state are examined. This is followed by a discussion of public expenditure, its growth in modern democratic societies, and its social and industrial effects. A rapid survey of the history and theories of taxation serves as an introduction to a special study of the problems of federal, state, and local taxation in the United States, comparisons being made with the leading foreign countries. Attention is also called to the nature and significance of other forms of public revenue. The course concludes with a discussion of the theory of public credit and the policy of national and local governments in regard to public debts. This course was given as a course of three hours a week in 1908-09.

 

Industrial Problems, Dr. Williamson.

Three hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1909-10 and again in 1911-12.)

The lectures of this course deal with certain economic problems which involve political action. Among the more important subjects taken up are the following: problems of money and banking; the commercial policy of the principal countries with special reference to the tariff situation in the United States; the rise of the transportation problem and a comparison of the methods of government control in use in various countries; industrial combinations, their development and their relation to the state. Typical combinations will be studied and the results of anti-trust legislation examined. The aim is to put before the student the significant facts of our commercial and industrial development, accompanied by an economic analysis of the problems created and a discussion of the political factors to be reckoned with in their solution.

 

Theoretical Sociology, Miss Parris.

Two hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1908-09 and again in 1909-10.)

This course is designed to introduce the students to the problems of modern sociology. The first semester’s work will be a history of sociological theory. The students will read selections from Auguste Comte, Herbert Spenser, Professor Giddings, and others. In the second semester the various social problems confronting the modern state will be considered, such as the congestion of population, housing and transportation problems in American and Continental cities, immigration and race problems in America, the standard of living among various economic groups, etc.

The lectures are supplemented by written reports on specially assigned reading and by written and oral quizzes.

 

The History of Political Theory, Miss Parris.

Three hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1910-11.)

The object of this course is to trace the history of certain political concepts, such as the ideas of liberty, sovereignty, state, government, etc. The first semester will be devoted to ancient and mediaeval political theory. In the second semester modern political theory will be studied. The following books will be read during the year: Plato’s Republic; Aristotle’s Politics; Machiavelli’s Prince; Hobbes’ Leviathan; Locke’s Essays on Government; Rousseau’s Social Contract; Burgess’s Political Science and Constitutional Law.

 

Graduate Courses.

Six hours a week of seminary work and graduate lectures are offered each year to graduate students of economics and politics accompanied by the direction of private reading and original research, and the courses are varied from year to year so that they may be pursued by students through three or more consecutive years. The books needed by the graduate students are collected in the seminary library of the department. No undergraduates are admitted to graduate courses or to the seminary library, but the post-major courses of the department amounting to five hours a week may be elected by graduate students.

 

Economic Seminary, Dr. Williamson.

Three hours a week throughout the year.

The methods of instruction in the seminary are designed to guide advanced students in special research work along the lines indicated by the titles of the courses. Some lectures are given but the main attention is devoted to the presentation and criticism of the results of studies made by the students themselves.

In 1908-09 the seminary is devoted to a study of selected topics in the financial and industrial history of the United States.

In 1909-10 the government of American cities will be the principal subject for the work of the seminary.

In 1910-11 labor problems will be the subject for seminary study. The lectures will trace the rise of the problem, the history and functions of labor organisations, and certain aspects of labor legislation. The seminary will meet two hours a week in this year.

 

Seminary in the Theory of Value, Miss Parris

Two hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1908-09.)

This course is a critical study of modern theories of value. A short historical introduction serves as a review of the principal economic theories of value in the English and German schools. The main work of the year is a study of the modern German and Austrian writers. The works of Ehrenfels, Meinong, Kraus, Kreibig, and Chuel are studied and criticised.

 

Seminary in Utilitarianism in Economics, Miss Parris.

Two hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1909-10 and again in 1911-12.)

The object of this course is to study the influence of utilitarian philosophy and ethics in shaping the economic theory of the English classical school. Paley, Bentham, Adam Smith, James Mill, Ricardo, Malthus, and John Stuart Mill are read critically.

 

Seminary in Capital and Interest, Miss Parris.

Three hours a week throughout the year.

(Given in 1910-11.)

The theories of capital of modern German, American, and Italian economists are studied and critically compared.

 

Economic Journal Club, Dr. Williamson and Miss Parris.

Two hours once a fortnight throughout the year.

At the meetings recent books and articles are reviewed and the results of special investigations are presented for discussion, comment, and criticism.

 

Source: Bryn Mawr College Calendar. Undergraduate and Graduate Courses, 1909. Vol. II, Part 3, (May, 1909), pp. 13, 130-134.

 

 

Categories
Chicago Economists Gender Iowa

Iowa State. Economics PhD alumna, Alison Comish Thorne, 1939

 

This post is the result of some rummaging in the Iowa State University economics department website, hoping to find material on Albert Gailord Hart for the previous post. While it appears that Hart came and went with hardly a footprint in the Iowa State (web-)sand, I did discover a very nice historical timeline for the Iowa State economics department. Moseying down that timeline, I made the acquaintance of the first economics Ph.D. at Iowa State College, Alison Comish Thorne. Obviously she has meet the membership requirement to be included in our series “Meet an economics Ph.D. alumna”, so I left the Iowa State economics website to search for more about Alison Comish Thorne’s life and career.

Of particular interest for Economics in the Rear-view Mirror is the account of her graduate student experience, especially pp. 24-42 of her autobiography (jstor access required) Leave the Dishes in the Sink (2002). A copy of Alison Comish Thorne’s c.v. is available at a special Utah State University library webpage memorializing her contributions.

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Selected Early and Late Publications

Thorne, Alison Comish. Capacity to Consume, American Economic Review vol. 26, no. 2 (June, 1936), pp. 292-5.

__________________. Evaluations of Consumption in Modern Thought. Economics Ph.D. thesis, Iowa State College, 1938.

__________________. Evaluations of Consumption in Scale-of-Living Studies, Social Forces vol. 19, no. 4 (May, 1941), 510-518.

__________________. Women mentoring women in economics in the 1930s, in Mary Ann Dimand, Robert W. Dimand, and Evelyn L. Forget, eds. Women of Value: Feminist Essays in the History of Women in Economics (Brookfield: Edward Elgar, 1995), pp. 60-70.

__________________. Leave the Dishes in the Sink—Adventures of an Activist in Conservative Utah. (University Press of Colorado and Utah State University Press, 2002).

_____________________

From the Economics Department Timeline, Iowa State University

Alison Comish Thorne received first PhD

The Doctor of Philosophy in general economics was first offered in 1937; the first PhD was granted to Alison Comish Thorne in 1939. She was the first woman student in the Iowa State economics department to attempt a PhD.

Thorne’s dissertation entitled “Evaluations of Consumption in Modern Thought” was written under Elizabeth Hoyt and Margaret Reid. In the process of working on her PhD, Thorne had an interim year at the University of Chicago, where she studied under Hazel Kyrk.

Thorne’s father, himself an economics PhD, authored a pioneer book in consumer economics and had been a doctoral candidate with Theodore Schultz at the University of Wisconsin.

Alison Comish had married Wynne Thorne in 1937. After earning her PhD at Iowa State, her academic career was delayed not only by the arrival of their five children, but also by anti-nepotism rules at Utah State University, where her husband had become head of agronomy and then director of the ag experiment station and vice president for university research. In addition to being a full-time wife and mother of five, she held state and local elected and appointed positions, served on the Governor’s Committee on the Status of Women, and wrote on employment of women and on poverty. These contributions have been recognized by distinguished service awards from several of these boards and councils and from Utah State University, the American Association of University Women, Business and Professional Women, and Soroptomists. She also received the Governor’s Award for Community Service.

Because administrators’ spouses were not allowed on the faculty, she did not join the USU faculty until 1965, aided in part by the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964. She began teaching after an invitation from a professor in the College of Family Life.

After playing a key role in organizing the newly created federal war on poverty programs in Utah, Thorne was invited to teach classes in the USU Sociology Department, as well. Thus, she became a lecturer in sociology, home economics, and consumer education at Utah State University at age 51, 28 years after earning her PhD. She was ineligible for tenure because she insisted on keeping her teaching just under half time in order to give time to her family and to community work.

After joining the staff of USU, she helped initiate the Status of Women Committee and the introductory course in women’s studies, which she taught for more than ten years. She organized and became the first coordinator of Women in International Development (WID).

She continued teaching and doing community work and in 1985, after a university-wide blue-ribbon committee reviewed her credentials, she was promoted to full professor. Because of her age she became “professor emeritus.” With a twinkle in her eye she remarked that she is the only person in the history of Utah State University to leap from lecturer to full professor in one fell swoop.

Of her five children, none became economists, although three became professors. Two of these professors are mothers with husbands in academia, something that would have been impossible in the 1930s.

Source:  Iowa State University, Department of Economics. Compiled by D. Gruca from official university publications and departmental files as well as

I. W. Arthur, “Development of the Field of Economics at Iowa State.”
Nancy Wolff and Jim Hayward, “The Historical Development of the Department of Economics at Iowa State, 1929 to 1985.”
G. Shepherd,“History of Economics at ISU.”

[Also Note: Jim Hayward and Nancy Wolff. The Historical Development of the Department at Iowa State University, 1869-1928.]

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Women of Caliber, Women of Cache Valley: Alison Comish Thorne

A Woman of Quality

Alison Comish Thorne challenged established perceptions of “womanhood” in order to instigate social change, and admonished other women of her generation to do the same. In a speech she gave in 1949, Alison encouraged women to “let the dishes wait.” She did not want women to lose their sense of personal identity as they fulfilled their roles as wives and mothers. She argued that women should not judge themselves or other women based on the tidiness of their homes. Alison demonstrated for women of Cache Valley that achieving an education and pursuing a career while being a wife and mother could be a reality. She balanced her professional responsibilities with her family duties and received personal fulfilment from both.

Alison was a trailblazer in the world of female higher education. Her pursuit for higher education began at a young age. In 1930, at sixteen years old, Alison attended Brigham Young University. In 1934, she graduated with a Bachelor’s degree in Economics and Education. Then, in 1935, she earned a Master’s degree in Consumption Economics from Iowa State University. In 1938, Alison became the first woman to receive a Ph. D. in Consumption Economics from Iowa State University.

Second Wave Feminism and the Equal Rights Amendment

Ahead of her time, Alison brought second wave feminism to Cache Valley. Along with many other women during the mid-twentieth century, Alison took upon herself the legacy of Alice Paul, an early-twentieth century suffragette and author of the original Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). When first introduced in 1923, the original ERA championed for both men’s and women’s rights, but took into consideration “women’s distinct needs.” The amendment’s objective was to establish men and women as equal under the law and focused on the right of women to compete equally with men in “all aspects of social and economic life.” Alice Paul opposed “protective legislation”—gender based laws written with the intention of “protecting” women from exploitation that, in reality, prevented women from pursuing work in particular professions, limited the number of hours they were allowed to work, and restricted pay rates. Despite Alice Paul’s valiant effort, the amendment did not pass.[1]

“Equality does not mean sameness.”

The ERA Alison promoted offered an updated version of Paul’s original amendment. Alison’s version of the ERA raised the issues of access to higher education, participation in the draft, and sexual discrimination within the Social Security program. In a draft for a pamphlet designed to promote the ERA in Utah to ratify, Alison explained, “The Amendment supports the constitutional equality for women and the extension of legal rights, privileges, and responsibilities regardless of sex.”

Similar to the movement in the Progressive Era, the ERA movement of the 1970s faced fierce competition from conservative groups such as “Humanitarians Opposed to Degrading Our Girls” (HOTDOG), “International Women’s Year” (IWY), and “Women for Maintaining the Difference between the Sexes and Against the Equal Rights Amendment.” In a pamphlet for the 1977 IWY Convention, the association announced that it opposed the ERA because the amendment “would provide undefined limits of governmental power over the lives of its citizens.” The IWY supported the idea that a government should have limited power over its citizens. The LDS church also aggressively campaigned against the ERA, a stance that divided LDS women. By opposing the ERA, many LDS women “outwardly revealed to each other their internal acceptance of the church’s teaching about proper gender roles.” Those who supported the ERA seemingly questioned church doctrine and ignored the counsel of church leadership.[2] Alison tried diligently to reassure members of the church that their religious rights would not be impinged. Equality did not mean that men and women became “the same.” From Alison’s point of view, the ERA provided women equality under the law, protected “traditional” roles of women, and simultaneously offered women more way to navigate life as established definitions of “womanhood” were being challenged.

[1] Amy E. Butler, Two Paths to Equality: Alice Paul and Ethel M. Smith in the ERA Debate, 1921-1929 (New York: University of New York Press, 2002), 1-2.

[2] Neil J. Young, “’The ERA Is a Moral Issue’: The Mormon Church, LDS Women, and the Defeat of the Equal Rights Movement,” American Quarterly 59, 3 (September 2007): 625; O. Kendall White, Jr., “Mormonism and the Equal Rights Amendment,” Journal of Church and State 31.2 J (1989): 249-268.

Source: Utah State University, University Libraries. Digital Exhibit, Women of Caliber, Women of Cache Valley: Alison Comish Thorne.

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Biographical Note from Archives

Alison Comish Thorne was born May 9, 1914 in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Newel H. and Louise Larson Comish. Her scholarly pursuits began at the age of sixteen when she entered Brigham Young University where she earned her Bachelor’s degree in Economics and Education in 1934. Thorne received a Master’s degree in Consumption Economics at Iowa State University in 1935. She then pursued doctoral studies at the University of Chicago during 1935-36, before receiving her Ph.D. in 1938 from Iowa State University in the field of Consumption Economics. Her mentors, Elizabeth Ellis Hoyt and Margaret G. Reid, worked with Thorne to help her become the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in this field from ISU. Thorne married D. Wynne Thorne on August 3, 1937 in Salt Lake City.

After the completion of her graduate work, Thorne filled various instructor positions at Colorado State University, Iowa State University, and finally Utah State University. At USU she was given the title of lecturer from 1964 through the 1980s by both USU’s Department of Sociology and the Department of Home Economics and Consumer Education. Due to anti-nepotism laws, Thorne was not allowed to secure a faculty position since her husband was already a faculty member. (Wynne Thorne served as USU’s Head of Agronomy, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and the Vice President of University Research.) This setback did not keep Thorne from establishing a solid reputation as a scholar. Thorne played a key role in the founding of the Women’s Studies Program at USU and served as a chair in the Women’s Studies Committee from 1977-1989. In addition, Thorne’s devotion to increasing the opportunity for women can be seen in her involvement in the Women’s Center, the Committee on the Status of Women, as well as the Women and International Development committee.

Moreover, Thorne gave many early feminist speeches, including “Let the Dishes Wait” (1949) and “Leave the Dishes in the Sink” (1973). These speeches encouraged women to focus more on personal hobbies, interests, education, and family rather than maintaining a “perfect” home. As result of her influential work, Thorne has been the recipient of many awards, such as Utah State University’s Distinguished Service Award (1982), Woman of the Year for the Utah Chapter of the American Association of University Women (1967), and Utah Governor’s Award for Volunteer Service (1980). She was also the author of numerous articles and books, including Women in the History of Utah’s Land-grant College (1985), Visible and Invisible Women in Land-grant Colleges (1986), Vision and Rhetoric in Shakespeare: Looking Through Language (2000), Leave the Dishes in the Sink: Adventures of an Activist in Conservative Utah (2002), and Shakespeare’s Romances (2003).

Thorne was active in many organizations during her retirement, such as the Utah State Historical Society, the Utah State Women’s History Association, and the National Women’s Studies Association. Thorne died in 2005 in Logan, Utah.

Source: See Archives West: Utah State University, Papers of Alison Comish Thorne, 1925-2003.

Image Source: Detail from the cover of Alison Comish Thorne’s Leave the Dishes in the Sink (2002).

Categories
Chicago Columbia Economists Gender Wellesley

Chicago. Economics Ph.D. alumna, Anna Prichitt Youngman, 1908

 

This entry in the series “Get to know an economics Ph.D. alumna/us” is dedicated to the life and professional career of Anna Prichitt Youngman, the third woman to receive a Ph.D. in economics from the University of Chicago. I have spent several hours verifying that her middle name is indeed spelled “Prichitt”, though even University of Chicago alumni publications and references have sometimes gotten it wrong as have later historians.

A timeline, a linked list of publications, and miscellaneous artifacts documenting her life, e.g. courses taught at Wellesley and salaries paid her while working at the Federal Reserve Board have been assembeled for this post.

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Barbara Libby provides a brief discussion of Youngman’s more important publications in “Anna Pritchett [sic] Youngman” in A Biographical Dictionary of Women Economists, Robert W. Dimand, Mary Ann Dimand, and Evelyn L. Forget (eds.). Northampton, Mass : Edward Elgar, 2000. Pages 486-489.

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Anna Prichitt Youngman.

1882, August 21. Born in Lexington, Kentucky.
1901. Graduated from Female High School in Louisville, Kentucky. Highest grade point average of her class, winning her a scholarship to University of Chicago.
1904. Ph.B. University of Chicago.
1908. Ph.D. University of Chicago.
1908-14. Instructor in economics, Wellesley College.
1911-2. Winter Semester at the University of Berlin. Later at the University of Frankfurt/Main.  August 1911 to July 1912 in Germany.
1914-20. Associate Professor, Wellesley College.
1919-20. Leave of absence from Wellesley College to work at the Federal Reserve Board.
1920-21. Lecturer in Banking, School of Business, University Extension, Columbia University.
1921-22. Research Assistant, Division of Analysis and Research, Federal Reserve Board;
1922. July 5.  Sailed from New York for a three month trip to Europe: countries listed on passport application were Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, France, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, British Isles.
1924-1933. Editorial writer, Journal of Commerce, 46 Barclay St., New York, N.Y.
1933-52. Editorial Writer, The Washington Post, Washington, D.C.
1974. February 16. Died in Silver Spring, Maryland.
1974. February 21. Buried in Cave Hill Cemetery, Louisville Kentucky

________________________

Publications of Anna Prichitt Youngman

“The Growth of Financial Banking,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 14, No. 7 (July, 1906), pp. 435-443.

“The Tendency of Modern Combination. I,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 15, No. 4 (April, 1907), pp. 193-208.

“The Tendency of Modern Combination. II,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 15, No. 5 (May, 1907), pp. 284-298.

“The Fortune of John Jacob Astor. [I],” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 16, No. 6 (June, 1908), pp. 345-368.

“The Fortune of John Jacob Astor. II. Investments in Real Estate,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 16, No. 7 (July, 1908), pp. 436-441.

“The Fortune of John Jacob Astor. III. Conclusion,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 16, No. 8 (October, 1908), pp. 514-530.

The Economic Causes of Great Fortunes [University of Chicago Ph.D. Thesis]. New York: Bankers Publishing, Co., 1909.

The New York Times Saturday Review for February 12, publishes a review of Miss Youngman’s new book which considers the source of some of our large American fortunes. We quote the first paragraph of the review:
“There is nothing feminine about the discussion of the ‘Economic Causes of Great Fortunes,’ by Anna Youngman, Ph.D., (the Bankers’ Publishing Company). She is Professor of Economics in Wellesley College for Women, but she writes as a man to men, rather than as a woman to women…”

Source: Wellesley News (February 16, 1910), p. 6.

“The Tobacco Pools of Kentucky and Tennessee,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 18, No. 1 (January, 1910), pp. 34-49.

Review of History of the Great American Fortunes by Gustavus Myers. Journal of Political Economy Vol. 18, No. 8 (October, 1910), pp. 642-643.

Review of Untersuchungen zum Maschinenproblem in der Volkswirtschaftslehre. Ruckblick und Ausblick. Eine dogmengeschichtliche Studie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der klassischen Schule by Carl Ergang. American Economic ReviewVol. 1, No. 4 (December, 1911), pp. 806-808.

“Frankfort-on-the-Main: A Study in Prussian Communal Finance Part I,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 27, No. 1 (November, 1912), pp. 150-201.

“Frankfort-on-the-Main: A Study in Prussian Communal Finance Part II,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (February, 1913), pp. 329-372.

Review of Der Wandel des Besitzes. Versuch einer Theorie des Reichtums als Organismus by Emaneul Sella (trans. by Dr. Bluwstein). American Economic ReviewVol. 3, No. 3 (September, 1913), pp. 627-629.

Review of Die Lohntheorien von Ad. Smith, Ricardo, J. St. Mill und Marx by Fredinand von Degenfeld-Schonburg. American Economic ReviewVol. 5, No. 1 (March, 1915), p. 55.

“The Revenue System of Kentucky: A Study in State Finance,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 32, No. 1 (November, 1917), pp. 142-205.

Review of The Conflict of Tax Laws by Rowland Estcourt. American Economic ReviewVol. 8, No. 4 (December, 1918), pp. 831-832.

“The Efficacy of Changes in the Discount Rates of the Federal Reserve Banks,” American Economic Review, Vol. 11, No. 3 (September 1921), pp. 466-485.

“A Popular Theory of Credit Applied to Credit Policy,” American Economic Review, Vol. 12, No. 3 (September, 1922), pp. 417-446.

Review of Money, Banking and Exchange in India by H. Stanley Jevons. American Economic ReviewVol. 13, No. 3 (September, 1923), pp. 512-513.

Participant in Discussion: Liquidating the War. Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (January, 1931), pp. 45-50.

The Federal Reserve System in wartime. National Bureau of Economic Research Occasional Paper No. 21, Jan 1945.

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High School Class Rank

Miss Anna Prichitt Youngman, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. C.A. Youngman, of 1313 Second street, received the highest average of the class of 1901 at the Female High School, and by a unanimous vote of the faculty she was awarded the scholarship at the Chicago University.

Source: The Courier-Journal of Louisville Kentucky (June 8, 1901), p. 6.

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Appointed at Wellesley to succeed Edith Abott in 1908

The fact that Dr. Edith Abbott of the Economics Department has refused reappointment in order to take up research work in Chicago is a source of sincere regret to all who have been brought into contact with her here this year. Miss Abbott will live at Hull House and work in the research department of the Chicago Institute of Social Science.

Dr. Abbott’s successor in the department of Economics is to be Miss Anna Youngman of Louisville, Kentucky. Miss Youngman graduated from the University of Chicago in 1904 and since that time has been doing graduate work in Economics and Political Science. She has held one of the University Fellowships in Political Economy and will receive the Ph.D. degree in June. Miss Youngman’s special studies have been in the line of Trusts and Corporation Finance. During the past year she has published a series of articles in the Journal of Political Economy on “Tendencies in Modern Combination” and her doctor’s thesis on “Great Fortunes” is already in press. Miss Youngman has been assisting in editorial work on the Journal of Political Economy during the past year.

Source: [Wellesley] College News (May 13, 1908), p. 3.

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Berlin and Frankfurt a.M.
Winter Semester, 1911/12

…During her stay at Wellesley, Youngman took time off to study economics at Berlin for the Winter Semester of 1911/12. At Berlin and later at the University of Frankfurt/Main, she concentrated on taxation and banking.
In 1919 Youngman took a leave of absence from Wellesley to work as an economist for the Federal Reserve Board. Youngman then resigned from Wellesley to continue her work with the Federal Reserve Board. From 1924 to 1933 she held a position as an eidtorial writer for the Journal of Commerce in New York City. She left that position to become an editorial writer for the Washington Post, where she remained until her retirement in 1952. At the Post, she wrote columns on financial and business topics. After retiring, Youngman continued to write for the Journal of Commerce.

Source: Sandra L. Singer. Adventures Abroad: North American Women at German-speaking Universities. Contributions in Women’s Studies, Number 201 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 203) p. 141.

_______________________

Wellesley College
1912-13
ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY

Professor: Katherine Coman, Ph.B. (on leave 1912-13)
Associate Professor: Emily Greene Balch, B.A.
Instructors: Anna Youngman, Ph.D., Emilie Josephine Hutchinson, M.A.

 

  1. Elements of Economics. I

Open to sophomores, juniors, and seniors, but intended primarily for sophomores. Three hours a week for the year.

Miss Youngman

An introductory course designed to give the student acquaintance with economic facts and training in economic reasoning. Illustrations will be drawn from actual observation of the conditions determining prices, land values, wages, profits, and standards of living. In the second semester, certain legislative problems relating to currency, banking, the tariff, etc., will be discussed in class.

[…]

  1. Statistical Study of Certain Economic Problems. III [not offered 1912-13]

Open to juniors and seniors who have completed two courses in Economics. Three hours a week for the first semester.

Miss Youngman

The course is introduced by lectures on the principles of statistical research. Each member of the class undertakes the investigation of a particular problem, and reports the results of her inquiry in the form of a final paper. Emphasis is placed upon the critical examination of statistical methods.

[…]

  1. The Trust Problem. III.

Open to juniors and seniors who have completed one course in Economics. Three hours a week for the second semester.

Miss Youngman

This course will deal with the various forms of monopolistic organization, the growth of the movement toward large scale production, the history of characteristic combinations, federal and state legislation and judicial decisions relating to the subject, the alleged advantages and evils of trusts, and proposed remedies for the latter.

[…]

  1. Money and Banking. III.

Open to juniors and seniors who have completed one course in Economics. Three hours a week for the first semester.

Miss Youngman

This course deals mainly with the principles of money and banking, but it is also designed to give the student some acquaintance with the history and chief characteristics of typical modern systems of banking.

[…]

  1. Conservation of our Natural Resources. III.

Open to juniors and seniors who have completed two courses in Economics. Three hours a week for the second semester.

Miss Youngman

A consideration of the wastes involved in the exploitation of forests, mineral resources, soil and water power, and the means proposed for scientific conservation. The work of the Department of Agriculture, the Bureau of Forestry, the Reclamation Service, the Bureau of Mines, etc., will be studied in detail.

 

  1. The Distribution of Wealth. III. [not offered 1912-13]

Open to juniors and seniors who have completed course 1 or 15. Three hours a week for the second semester.

Miss Youngman

A discussion of the principles regulating wages, interest, and rent. The course will involve a critical and comparative examination of the distributive theories of such leading exponents of the classical school, as Ricardo, Mills, and Cairnes, and of certain important economists of the present day.

Source:  Wellesley College Bulletin, Calendar 1912-13, pp. 72-77.

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Salaries of the Federal Reserve Board Employees, 1919

ANALYSIS & RESEARCH Present Basic Salary, including Extra Compensation (1919)
Olive M. Bode $1,200
Ruth Cornwall $1,800
Mary Johnson $1,320
W. H. Steiner $2,750
Anna Youngman $2,500

Source: Meeting Minutes of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, December 18, 1919, 3:30 PM, Volume 6, Part 3, page 5.

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Salaries of the Federal Reserve Board Employees, 1920

Dated June 21st [1920] recommending approval of increases in salaries of employees of the Division of Analysis and Research, as follows:

From To
W. H. Steiner $3,500 $4,000
Miss Anna Youngman $2,750 $3,000
Miss Katherine Snodgrass $2,000 $2,750
F. W. Jones $2,400 $2,750
Miss Ruth Cornwall $2,000 $2,400
Miss Faith Williams $1,800 $2,250
J. M. Chapman $1,200 $1,500 ($750 half time)
M. R. Adams $1,500 $1,560
Miss Alice Ross $1,500 $1,560
Miss Rose Heller $1,080 $1,440
Miss Mary Johnson $1,440 $1,560
Miss Helen S. Grant — $1,440
Miss Olive M. Bode — $1,500

Approved.

Source: Meeting Minutes of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, June 22, 1920, 11:00 AM, Volume 7, Part 2, page 7.

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Anna Youngman’s (final) annual salary, 1922

“Letter dated May 8th, from the Director of the Division of Analysis and Research, requesting approval of the appointment of Mr. Woodlief Thomas as an employee in that Division at annual salary of $2600, said authority being requested in view of the retirement of Miss Anna Youngman, who has previously been employed in the Division of Analysis & Research, at annual salary of $3500.”

Source: Meeting Minutes of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, May 10, 1922, Volume 9, Part 1, page 1.

________________________

From Passport Application.
Sworn May 3, 1922

Permanent residence 35 Schermerhorn St., Brooklyn, New York.
Occupation: research assistant.
Height: 5 feet 7 ½ inches

July 5, 1922 to sail from New York on the “Mongolia” to Europe: Germany, Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, France, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, British Isles (“intend to return to the United States within 3 months”)

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Internal Memorandum

February 18, 1954
Washington, D.C.

Interview with Miss Anna Youngman at her new
residence in the Marlyn Apartments

Miss Youngman worked with Parker Willis on the Journal of Commerce. She was an editorial writer but the rumor that she wrote some of the Willis editorials is something which she denies. She says she did not agree with Mr. Willis on banking policies and would not have written editorials attributed to him. She has kept no files and was by no means as useful in connection with the Willis papers as I had had reason to think she would be.

Miss Youngman confirmed what I had heard from other sources that Mr. Willis headed the first Research Division of the Federal Reserve Board and that on being asked to teach at Columbia he took the Division to New York and kept it there for three years. During this time a running fight went on with Mr. Jacobson (now deceased) and Mr. Goldenweiser and Mr. Adolf Miller.

Obviously the distance between the Research Division and the Board for which research was being done caused a great deal of the difficulty and at the end of three years the division was restored to Washington and put into other hands.

When Mr. Eugene Meyer bought the Washington Post he took Miss Anna Youngman with him to write editorials there. She did financial editorials for the Post for many years. Her last job at the Post was the classification of Mr. Myer’s own papers. Miss Youngman says that these papers have now been brought from New York and the summer place belonging to Mr. Meyer at White Plains and are in Washington. She says that they include seven or eight volumes of diaries carefully typed and indexed.

Obviously some of these diaries which, according to Miss Youngman, are better in the earlier period than the later ones will have material which is important to this project. Miss Youngman says that Mr. Floyd Harrison, who is Mr. Meyer’s right hand man in New York, is the person who can give further information about the papers and who will know if any provision has been made for their disposal after Mr. Meyer’s death.

Miss Youngman lives alone with her sister. Both ladies are far from young and any information which is needed from Miss Youngman should be gained as soon as possible.

Concerning Mr. Willis she said that he was not a difficult man to work with because he protected the people who worked with him. Assumed responsibility for the things they did and gave them credit when he thought they deserved it. He was on the other hand a man of lively mind and extremely fond of argument. She suggested that Mr. Jules Bogen, Mr. John M. Chapman of the school of business at Columbia University, who was at one time assistant to Mr. Williams and Mr. W. H. Stiner (correction that might be Steiner but I am not sure [Note: “W. H. Steiner” is correct spelling). At 328 Riverside Drive, New York[.] Might at all of them have further information about Mr. Willis.

Source: Committee on the History of the Federal Reserve System. Interview with Miss Anna Youngman at her new residence in the Marlyn Apartments, Washington, D.C. (February 18, 1954). Entry 167, Box 2, Folder 1, Item 42.

Image Source: Passport application of Anna Youngman (May 3, 1922).

 

 

 

Categories
Chicago Columbia Economists Gender Minnesota Social Work

Columbia. Economics Ph.D. Alumnus Max Ira West, 1893.

 

 

Max Ira West (b. Nov. 11, 1870 in St. Cloud, MN; d. Jan 7, 1909 in Washington, D.C.) entered government service relatively soon after being awarded his Ph.D. in economics at Columbia University with a dissertation on the inheritance tax. He was a student of E.R.A. Seligman. West died at age 38, leaving a wife and five children. 

Max West and his future wife Mary Mills were fellow officers of the University of Minnesota’s Class of 1890. She was the designated class “prophet” and he served as the class “statistician”. Max was a professional economist of the family and rightly the main subject of this post. Max’s widow deserves some mention in Economics in the Rear-view Mirror for her later work. Mary attained great prominence for her pamphlets on pre-natal and infant care for the Children’s Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor that were analogous to Dr. Benjamin Spock’s Baby and Child Care for later generations of parents. The Children’s Bureau was an absorbing state for the careers of many a professional woman economist of the time.

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Announcement of death of Max Ira West

The following communication with reference to the unfortunate death of Dr. Max West is printed at the request of the committee whose names appear below:

The members of the Association have no doubt read of the recent death, under most unfortunate circumstances, of Dr. Max West, of the Bureau of Corporations, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C.

Dr. West died after a short illness, a slight cold developing into pneumonia. He has left a wife and five children, ranging from thirteen years to only nine months, with no visible means of support, save a very small annuity terminable in ten years. Friends in Washington have contributed a considerable sum for immediate needs, including the expenses pertaining to Dr. West’s sickness and death, and have secured for Mrs. West a temporary position in the Government, which we hope will become a permanent position. This, with the closest economy, will enable Mrs. West to look after the bare physical needs of her five little children, but will leave no margin at all either for education or for contingencies.

It has therefore occurred to us and to some of the other friends of Dr. West that it might be possible to solicit and collect a fund for such a purpose. It is hoped to raise a fund of at least $5000. The suggestion is to be sent to all those who may be supposed to have known Dr. West personally, or to be in sympathy with the scholarly work for which he stood, and the committee will be very glad to receive any subscriptions that you may deem fit to make.

Checks may be sent to Mr. Edwin R. A. Seligman, at No. 324 West 86th street, New York, who has consented to act as treasurer for the committee.

Respectfully yours,

EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN, Columbia University.

JACOB H. HOLLANDER, Johns Hopkins University.

E. DANA DURAND, Dept. of Commerce and Labor, Washington.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Dr. Max West died of pneumonia at his home in Washington, D. C., on January 7, 1909.

Dr. West was born at St. Cloud, Minnesota, in November, 1870. He was graduated from the University of Minnesota at nineteen, and went at first into newspaper work. In 1891 he went to Columbia University as a fellow in economics. There he received his master’s degree the next year, and his doctorate the year following. From 1893 to 1895 he was connected with the University of Chicago, first as an honorary fellow and then as a docent. The great railroad strike of 1894 drew him again into newspaper work; he reported it for the Chicago Herald. In 1895 he was an editorial writer for the Chicago Record. During the academic year 1895-1896 he lectured at Columbia.

In 1896 he entered the government service, to which the rest of his life was chiefly devoted. For four years he was connected with the Division of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture, and for nearly two years with the Industrial Commission. During the latter part of this period, from 1900 to 1902, he was also associate professor of economics in Columbian University, Washington, and in 1902 he again lectured at Columbia. In that year he became assistant registrar of the Tenement House Department of New York City. In 1903 he went to Porto Rico as chief of the island Bureau of Internal Revenue. His health did not permit him to continue there, and in 1904 he returned to Washington as a special examiner of the Bureau of Corporations. Here he remained until his death.

Dr. West’s chief published work was The Inheritance Tax, which appeared in 1893, was translated into French in 1895, and was republished in a revised and enlarged edition in 1907. A projected work, entitled Principles of Taxation, is left unfinished. He wrote many articles for periodicals, dealing oftenest with taxation, but sometimes with sociological subjects, questions of constitutional law, and other topics.

More of Dr. West’s scanty strength than he could well spare was devoted to the promotion of public well-being. During his two years in Chicago he was a resident successively of Hull House, the University of Chicago Settlement, and the Chicago Commons. At Washington he was warmly interested in social settlement work and in the Associated Charities, and he was the most active and efficient member of the Civic Center.

Source: American Economic Association, The Economic Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Apr., 1909), pp. 12-14.

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Mary Mills West, ca. 1926

The following photograph was from a short alumna feature in the University of Minnesota yearbook The Gopher (1926). It is noted there that she was a member of the class of 1890, an editor of that year’s Gopher, and a member of the Delta Sigma literary society. The entry adds:

In 1909, she entered the Government service and filled various offices for the following ten years. She took a great interest in the newly created Children’s Bureau, and while there wrote three pamphlets regarding the health and care of mothers and babies which are widely distributed throughout the United States.

Mrs. West resigned her position with the Children’s Bureau in 1919, and moved to Berkeley where she engaged in newspaper syndicate work and other writings. She is, at present, an instructor in short-story writing for the University of California, and is gaining a considerable foothold in fiction writing for herself. She recently submitted a story to the Forum short story contest of 1924 and was awarded second place by a jury of noted writers and critics.

Image Source: University of Minnesota, The Gopher, 1926, p. 181.

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Production of Mary Mills West’s pamphlets

West’s publications became the best-selling pamphlets of the Government Printing Office in the 1910s. The first edition of West’s pamphlet, Prenatal Care, sold out in two months. Only six months later, the Bureau had distributed 30,000 coopies and could have sent out twice that number but for the inability of the printeres to keep up with the demand. …Nearly a million and a half copies of West’s second pamphlet, Infant Care, were disseminated between 1914 and 1921.

Source:  Robyn Muncy. Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890-1935 (Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 55.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Children’s Bureau Publications of Mary Mills West

(with Nettie McGill) Child-Welfare Programs: Study Outlines for the Use of Clubs and Classes. U.S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau. Bureau Publication No. 73, Children’s Year Follow-up Series, No. 7. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1920.

Prenatal Care. Care of Children Series, No. 1 Children’s Bureau Publication No. 4. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913.

Infant Care. Care of Children Series, No. 2 Children’s Bureau Publication No. 8 (Revised) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921. (first published in 1914)

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Mary Mills West’s obituary

Mrs. Mary West, Writer, Dies at 88

BERKELEY, Aug. 13. Mrs. Mary Mills West, whose pamphlets’ on infants and children’s care have been distributed by the United States Children’s Bureau to millions of American homes, died here yesterday. Her home was at 549 Santa Barbara Road.

Mrs. West, 88, was the widow of Dr. Max West, an economic consultant for the U.S. Departments of Labor and Commerce. She became associated with the Children’s Bureau when it was organized in 1915. After moving to Berkeley 30 years ago, she was associated with the University of California Extension Division as a writing instructor.

Surviving Mrs. West are two daughters, Mrs. W. R. Lorimer of Honolulu and Mrs. Charles Manson of Wausau, Wis., and a son, Philip S. West of Berkeley. Three grandchildren also survive.

Funeral services will be held at 2:30 p.m. tomorrow; in the Berkeley Hills Chapel, Shattuck Ave. and Cedar St .The Rev. Ray L. Wells, assistant pastor of the First Congregational Church, will officiate.

Source: Oakland Tribune (Oakland, California), August 3, 1955, p. 30.

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Image Source: Alumnus feature on Max West published in University of Minnesota, The Gopher, 1896, p. 133.

 

 

Categories
Economists Gender Radcliffe Wellesley Yale

Yale. Economics Ph.D. alumna Sarah Scovill Whittelsey, 1898

 

This post adds a few details to Claire H. Hammond’s sketch of the life and brief academic career of the second woman to have received a Ph.D. in economics in the United States (note: Sarah Scovill Whittelsey tied for second place with Hannah Robie Sewall at the University of Minnesota). A link to Whittelsey’s 1894 Radcliffe portrait, note of her success in women’s college tennis, testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives, and her newspaper obituary are among the tidbits to be found below.

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Life and Career of Sarah Scovill Whittelsey

Claire H. Hammond. American Women and the Professionalization of Economics. Review of Social Economy. Vol. 51, No. 3 (Fall 1993), 347-370.   (here pp. 362-366)

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1892, College women’s tennis champion

The first intercollegiate tennis invitational for women is held at Bryn Mawr College. Radcliffe College’s Sarah Whittelsey wins the tournament. Vassar, Wellesley, and Smith Colleges turn down the invitation; many faculty members fear women cannot handle the competitive nature of sports.

Source: From the milestone timeline at the ITA Hall of Fame.

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1898, Yale Ph.D.

Sarah Scovill Whittelsey (Mrs. Percy T. Walden), B.A. Radcliffe College. In how far has Massachusetts labor legislation been in accordance with teachings of economic theory? Ann. Amer. Acad. Pol. and Soc Sci., Supplement, 1901, 1:1-157. 210 St. Ronan St., New Haven, Conn.

Source: Doctors of Philosophy of Yale University With the Titles of Their Dissertations, 1861-1927. New Haven, p. 65.

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President Hadley’s Introduction
to the published dissertation

Amid the many things which are valuable in the earlier reports of the Massachusetts Labor Bureau, none possess more permanent importance than the dispassionate analyses of the effects of labor laws which were prepared by Colonel Wright and his associates. The investigation of the workings of the ten-hour law in Massachusetts mills is a historic example of economic study which is as good as anything of its kind that has been done in the United States. But in more recent years the work of the Massachusetts Bureau has run in somewhat different channels. It has been to some degree crowded out of the fields of legislative investigation by the mass of purely statistical work which has been entrusted to its charge. And while the activity of its former chief is continued in his work as the head of the United States Bureau of Labor, the very breadth of the investigations which he is conducting forbids that complete treatment of any one field of legislation which was possible in his earlier labors.
Under these circumstances, the economic effects of Massachusetts labor legislation as they had worked themselves out in recent years seemed an appropriate subject for a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Yale. In her treatment of this theme Miss Whittelsey has presented the subject under three distinct aspects: an analysis, a history, and a criticism. Her analysis shows what is the present condition of the Massachusetts statute books on the various subjects connected with labor. The history shows when these statues were passed, and what were the motives and causes which led to their passage. The criticism undertakes to show what have been the effects, economic, social and moral, of the various forms of statutory regulation.
In a field of this kind it is hardly to be expected that the results will be startling. If they were, the method and the impartiality of the thesis would be open to great distrust. It is for the serious student of legislation rather than for the doctrinaire or the agitator that a painstaking criticism of this kind is intended. It has special value at the present day, when so many other states are following the example of Massachusetts in this line, and when there is a tendency to introduce similar methods of regulation into other departments of economic life besides those which are involved in the contract between the employer and the wage earner. Whether this tendency is to be regarded as a good or an evil thing is a matter of opinion on which thoughtful men differ; but there can be no question among thoughtful men of all parties that the maximum of good and the minimum of evil are to be obtained by studying dispassionately the results of past experience before we make experiments in new fields.

Arthur T. Hadley.
Yale University.

Source: Ann. Amer. Acad. Pol. and Soc Sci., Supplement, 1901, 1:5-6.

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CALLED TO WELLESLEY.

Miss Sarah Scovill Whittelsey Will Probably Accept.

NEW HAVEN. Jan 16—Miss Sarah Scovill Whittelsey of this city has been offered the chair of political economy at Wellesley college for one year. She has been summoned to Boston for a conference with the Wellesley authorities relative to the offer. She is to take the place of Miss Balch, who will leave Wellesley next fall to go to Europe for her Sabbatical year. Miss Whittelsey will, it is understood, accept the position.

She is the daughter of Joseph T. Whittelsey of this city, of national prominence as an authority in tennis, golf and college sports.

Source: The Boston Globe, 17 January 1902, p. 8.

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Sarah Scovill Whittelsey (Mrs. Percy T. Walden)
B.A. Radcliffe College 1894.

Miss Whittelsey received her Doctor’s degree in 1898. During the year 1902-1903 she was Instructor in Economics at Wellesley College.

In 1905 she married Percy T. Walden, Ph.D. Yale 1896, now Professor of Chemistry in the University. They have two children, Sarah Scovill, born in 1906, and Joseph Whittelsey, born in 1911.

Since 1914 Mrs. Walden has served on the New Haven Board of Education.

Her dissertation was published in 1901, in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Supplement I, under the title “Massachusetts Labor Legislation : An Historical and Critical Study.”

Her present address is 210 St. Ronan Street, New Haven, Connecticut.

Source: Alumnae Graduate School, Yale University. 1894-1920 (New Haven: Yale University, 1920), pp. 46-47.

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Statement of Mrs. Percy T. Walden, New Haven, Conn., Chairman of Child Welfare, National League of Women Voters

Source: Hearing before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, House of Representatives. Seventieth Congress, Second Session. H.R. 14070 to provide a child welfare extension service and for other purposes.  Washington, D.C.: January 24 and 25, 1929. Pages 86-87.

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Obituary

Mrs. Sarah Walden.

New Haven, Aug. 7. — (AP.) — Mrs. Sarah Walden, 73, former economics teacher at Wellesley College, first woman member of the New Haven Board of Education and founder and long time president of the Connecticut Child Welfare Association, died at a hospital here yesterday after a short illness. She was the widow of Professor Percv T. Walden of Yale University.

Mrs. Walden. who was born In Paris but spent nearly all her here, was graduated from Radcliffe College in 1894, the year she won the women’s intercollegiate tennis championship at Byrn Mawr, Pa. She was a trustee of Wellesley College. She leaves a son, Joseph Walden of Elizabeth, N.J.; a daughter, Mrs. Richmond H. Curtiss of New Haven, and a sister, Mrs. Frank Dunn Berrien of New Haven.

Source: Hartford Courant. August 8, 1945, page 5

 

Image Source:  Radcliffe Archives. Portrait of Sarah Scovill Whittelsey by James Notman. Radcliffe College, Class of 1894.

Categories
Economists Gender Radcliffe

Radcliffe. Economics Ph.D. Alumna, Ada M. Harrison, 1952

 

John Bates Clark and his student Thorstein Veblen are the two most famous economists associated with Carleton College. Less famous but having a greater direct impact on more generations of Carleton students was the Radcliffe Ph.D., Ada M. Harrison. With this post she now joins our series “Meet an economics Ph.D. alumna”.

An oral history Interview with Ada M. Harrison recorded in 1993.

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Ada M. Harrison, A.M.
Radcliffe Ph.D. in Economics, 1952

Special Field, Business Organization and Control.
Dissertation, “The Competitive Structure of the Wood Household Manufacturing Furniture Industry”.

Source: Radcliffe College. Reports of Officers Issue, 1951-52 Sessions.  Official Register of Radcliffe College, Vol. XVIII, No. 5 (December, 1952), p. 22.

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Carleton College Emerita Professor Ada M. Harrison Dies

Ada M. Harrison, one of Carleton College’s most admired and beloved professors, died Monday, Dec. 27, [1999] in Northfield, Minn. She was 85. A respected economist and devoted teacher, Harrison taught economics for 31 years at Carleton, specializing in industrial organization, economic theory, and accounting. A public memorial service was held Friday, Jan. 28, 2000, in Carleton’s Skinner Memorial Chapel.

Harrison was born Feb. 2, 1914, in Saskatchewan, Canada. She received her bachelor’s degree from the State College of Washington, Pullman, in 1941 and earned her Ph.D. in economics from Radcliffe College in 1952. Before coming to Carleton in 1948, Harrison was a statistician for a Chicago investment firm and served as an economist with the Office of Price Administration in Washington.

“In her many years of teaching at Carleton, Ada Harrison had a profound impact on her students,” Carleton President Stephen R. Lewis, Jr. said. “A diminutive but demanding teacher of accounting and microeconomics, she expected analytical rigor and high standards of precision. With a quick mind and sharp wit, she often struck fear in the hearts of hundreds of future business leaders, who testify abundantly to her lasting effect on their lives.”

Michael S. Hunt, a 1968 graduate of Carleton and principal with Life Science Advisors in Carmel, Ind., remembered Harrison as a great teacher of economics and a dear friend. “As a freshman in her Introductory Economics class, I felt stark terror that I will always remember because she would accept only our best, critical thought and made it painfully clear when we didn’t produce. As I got to know her during my four years at Carleton I realized that she was not only a brilliant economist but also a woman with a great sense of humor and a deep concern for our professional and personal growth after Carleton.”

In 1957-58, Harrison was the only female among five college professors in the country to be awarded a National Research Professorship in Economics by the Brookings Institution of Washington, D.C. She was a member of Phi Beta Kappa and of the American Economic Association. During the 1950s and ’60s, Harrison traveled extensively to speak on economic issues. She also sponsored Carleton’s debate team for several years.

Harrison officially retired from Carleton in June 1979, but continued to teach for several years after her retirement.

George Lamson, the Wadsworth A. Williams Professor of Economics at Carleton and a friend and colleague of Harrison’s, recently asked her what she was most thankful for in her life. According to Lamson, Harrison answered without hesitation, “That I became a teacher and that I taught at Carleton.”

“Miss Harrison loved to teach, and she loved her students,” said Wally Weitz, Carleton class of 1970 and president of Wallace R. Weitz & Co. in Omaha. “She was demanding-there was no place to hide for the unprepared-and she taught us to think clearly and to express ourselves precisely. She had a major impact on me, and I am grateful.”

Source: Carleton College, Press Release of December 29, 1999.

Image Source: Carleton College Yearbook, Algol 1959, p. 24.

Categories
Brookings Chicago Economists Gender Social Work

Chicago. Economics Ph.D. alumna. Helen Russell Wright, 1922

 

From the days when economics still had room for policies of social work, Helen Russell Wright, economics Ph.D. alumna of the University of Chicago (1922). 

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Helen Russell Wright.

1891, February 26. Born in Glenwood, Iowa.
1912. A.B. Smith College.
Studied economics and social work in the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy (CSCP) under Sophonisba Breckenridge and Edith Abbott
1912-13. Appointed research student in the Department of Social Investigation. (CSCP)
1913. Certificate of the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy.
1913-14. Senior Research Studentship (honorary). Department of Social Investigation (CSCP)
1914-15. Senior Research Studentship (honorary). Department of Social Investigation (CSCP)
1917-18.  Research assistant at Department of Social Investigation (CSCP)
1918-19. Assistant in Social Investigation (CSCP).
1919-1920. Assistant in Social Investigation (CSCP).
1920-21. Fellow in Political Economy, University of Chicago.
1922. Ph.D. University of Chicago. Thesis: The political labour movement in Great Britain, 1880-1914.
1922. Children of Wage-Earning Mothers: A Study of a Selected Group in Chicago. U.S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Publication No. 102. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922.
1922-24. Senior Staff member, Brookings Graduate Institution of Economics, Washington, D.C.
1924-28. Member of the faculty of the Brookings Graduate Institution of Economics, Washington, D.C.
1926. Co-authored with Walton Hale Hamilton, The Case of Bituminous Coal. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926.
1928. Co-authored with Walton Hale Hamilton, A Way of Order for Bituminous Coal. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1928.
1928. Joins University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration.
1931. Associate Professor of Social Economy, Graduate School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
1938. Professor and Assistant Dean of the School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
1944. Social Service in Wartime. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1942-1956. Succeeded Edith Abbott as Dean of the Social Service Administration, University of Chicago.
1950-56. Editor of the Social Service Review.
1954. Received the University of Chicago’s alumni medal.
1955. Illinois Welfare association’s annual award for outstanding service in 1955.
1956. Retired from the University of Chicago
1957-58. Chief of a technical assistance team of the Council on Social Work Education to assist the development of the schools of social work in India.
Part-time teaching at the University of Southern California.
1969, August 14. Died in Pasadena, Los Angeles, California.

 

Image Source: Helen Russell Wright’s senior year portrait in Smith College, The 1912 Class-Book, p. 56.